Manufacturing Technologies
A comprehensive guide to 14 manufacturing technology categories — CNC machining (turning, milling, drilling, grinding, tooling), cutting (laser, waterjet, plasma), sheet metal bending and forming, punching and stamping, casting, forging, rolling, precision grinding and finishing, EDM, jigs and fixtures, additive manufacturing (3D printing), plastic injection molding, pressing and coining, and bench fitting.
🏭
Manufacturing Technologies
Machining · Cutting · Bending · Punching · Casting · Forging · Rolling · Grinding · EDM · Fixturing
🔄 Turning
2-Axis CNC Lathe — Turning Center
CNCX+ZMost Common
AxesX (radial) + Z (axial)
Spindle1,000–6,000 RPM (large) · up to 15,000 (small)
Accuracy±0.005–0.02mm · IT6-IT8
Ra0.4–3.2μm (depends on tool and fn)
Turret8–12 stations · VDI/BMT
Chuck3-jaw / 4-jaw / Collet (precision)
Bar Feederautomatic bar feeding
ManufacturersMazak, DMG, Okuma, Doosan, Haas
▸ Climb vs Conventional: turning is always down-cutting (like Climb)
▸ OP10 lathe: round, process, script → OP20 milling
✓ excellent for cylindrical parts and mass production
▶ YouTube
▸ OP10 lathe: round, process, script → OP20 milling
✓ excellent for cylindrical parts and mass production
Y+C+Live Tools+Sub-Spindle Lathe
Y-AxisC-AxisDone-In-One
C-Axisprecise Spindle rotation ← precise milling
Y-Axisoff-center milling — slots, non-centered holes
Live Toolsrotating tools in the Turret — drill, mill
Sub-Spindlesecond Spindle ← holds part for side-B OP
ManufacturersMazak Integrex, DMG CTX, Mori NZX
✓ complex part in one OP — setup savings
✗ more complex CAM programming
▸ for mass production of complex parts — fast ROI
▶ YouTube
✗ more complex CAM programming
▸ for mass production of complex parts — fast ROI
VTL — Vertical Turning Lathe
VerticalLarge Diameter
Principlevertical axis — gravity holds heavy part
Diameter500mm–8,000mm+
Uselarge gears, turbine bases, cranes
Chuckrotating table (Rotary Table)
ManufacturersHeyligenstaedt, CNIC, TOS, Schiess
▶ YouTube
Swiss-Type — Sliding Headstock
SwissSmall DiameterHigh Precision
Principlebar moves in Z, tool fixed — support near cutting point
Diameter1–32mm (typical)
Accuracy±0.002–0.005mm — among the most precise
Usemedical (screws, pins), watches, electronics
ManufacturersCitizen, Star, Tsugami, Tornos
▸ Guide Bush provides support ← ↑accuracy at large L/D
✓ mass production of small, complex parts
▶ YouTube
✓ mass production of small, complex parts
Turning Operations
All Operations
Facingface cutting — ↓length · Ra · flatness
OD Turningreducing diameter — Roughing/Semi/Finishing
Boringenlarging internal hole — ↑accuracy vs. Drilling
Threadingthread cutting — G76/G32 · M/Inch/ACME
Groovinggroove — O-Ring Groove, Snap Ring, general
Partingcutoff — Cutoff Tool, watch for Chatter
Knurlingknurl pattern — for grip / aesthetics
Taper Turningcone — Tailstock offset / X+Z sync
Profilecomplex profile — Copy Turning / CAM
▶ YouTube
Turning Tools
Insert Geometry
CNMGgeneral Roughing — C=80° · 2 corners
DNMGflexible Roughing — D=55° · 2 corners
VNMGfinishing and profile — V=35° · sharp
TNMGgeneral finishing — T=60° · 3 corners
RCMTmaximum strength — round
Wiperlow Ra at high feed — ↑productivity
Chip BreakerPM/MM/GM/FF — per material and load
Boring Barsolid carbide / Antivibration (Sandvik Silent)
▶ YouTube
Multi-Spindle Screw Machine
Mass Production4/6/8 Spindle
Principle4-8 Spindles in parallel ← each station = a different OP
Ratea part every 3-15 seconds!
Usescrews, pins, volume parts — millions of units
ManufacturersTornos Bechler, Index, Davenport
▶ YouTube
Cutting Parameters — Turning
Quick Reference
| Material | Vc (m/min) | fn Rough | fn Finish | ap Rough |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Steel 1045 | 150-250 | 0.3-0.5 | 0.08-0.15 | 2-5mm |
| Steel 4140 Q&T | 100-200 | 0.2-0.4 | 0.08-0.12 | 1.5-4mm |
| SS 304 | 150-250 | 0.2-0.35 | 0.05-0.1 | 1.5-3mm |
| Al 6061 | 400-800 | 0.3-0.5 | 0.1-0.2 | 2-6mm |
| Ti-6Al-4V | 40-80 | 0.1-0.2 | 0.05-0.1 | 1-2mm |
| Inconel 718 | 25-50 | 0.1-0.2 | 0.05-0.08 | 0.5-1.5mm |
| Cast Iron | 150-250 | 0.3-0.6 | 0.1-0.2 | 2-5mm |
⚙️ Milling
3-Axis VMC — Vertical Machining Center
3-AxisATCMost Common
TravelX: 500-2000mm · Y: 400-1000mm · Z: 400-700mm
Spindle8,000-30,000 RPM · BT30/40/50 · HSK-A63
Accuracy±0.005-0.02mm · Repeatability ±0.002mm
Ra0.4-3.2μm finishing
ATC20-60 tools · ARM/Carousel
ManufacturersHaas VF, Mazak, DMG, Fanuc, Okuma
▸ BT40 vs HSK-A63: HSK = higher precision, ↑RPM
▸ Spindle Speed: faster for Al, slower for Ti/Inconel
✓ the most versatile — pockets, contours, slots, holes
✗ 3-axis = re-fixturing for each side
▶ YouTube
▸ Spindle Speed: faster for Al, slower for Ti/Inconel
✓ the most versatile — pockets, contours, slots, holes
✗ 3-axis = re-fixturing for each side
5-Axis VMC — 5-Axis Simultaneous
5-AxisAerospaceDone-In-One
KinematicsTrunnion (A+C) · Swivel Head (A+B) · Mixed
RotaryA: ±120° · B/C: 360° continuous
Accuracy±0.003-0.015mm · Angular ±0.001°
3+2 vs 5-Sim3+2=fixed position · 5-Sim=simultaneous motion
UseImpellers, Blisks, Medical, Aerospace, Molds
ManufacturersDMG DMU, Makino D63, Hermle C42, Grob G350
▸ RTCP: Rotation Tool Center Point — maintains tool contact
▸ CAM: Hypermill, NX, Mastercam, PowerMill
✓ complex part in a single setup
✗ complex programming — error = crash!
▶ YouTube
▸ CAM: Hypermill, NX, Mastercam, PowerMill
✓ complex part in a single setup
✗ complex programming — error = crash!
HMC — Horizontal Machining Center
HorizontalPalletMass Production
Pallet Changer2-20 pallets — Uptime 85-95%!
B-Axis4 sides in one setup + Spindle
Chipchips fall by gravity → Chip Conveyor
CoolantThrough Spindle 40-120 bar
ManufacturersOkuma MA, Matsuura, Makino a61, Brother Speedio
✓ Pallet Changer = machine keeps working while parts are set up
✓ 4 sides in one OP with the B-axis
▸ fast ROI in mass production
▶ YouTube
✓ 4 sides in one OP with the B-axis
▸ fast ROI in mass production
Mill-Turn / Multitasking
MultitaskingDone-In-One
PrincipleTurning + Milling + Drilling in one machine
Main SpindleTurning — C-axis for positioning
Milling SpindleB-axis ± 180° — angled milling
Sub-Spindledirect OP20 ←← setup savings
ManufacturersMazak Integrex, DMG NTX, Okuma MULTUS
▶ YouTube
Milling Operations
All Operations
Face Millingsurface flattening — Face Mill / Shell Mill
Shoulder Milling90° shoulder — Side + Face
Pocket Millingpocket — Conventional / Trochoidal
Slot Millingslot — full ae = Slot Mill
Contour Millingprofile — End Mill + CAM
Rampingangled entry — ↓load on tip
Helical Entryhelical entry into pocket — ↑tool life
Trochoidalrolling circular path — small ae, large ap
Plunge Millingaxial entry — for deep parts
3D SurfaceBall End Mill + Scallop Control
▶ YouTube
Climb vs Conventional Milling
Critical!
Climb (Down)tool enters ← chip thickness decreases ← ↑Ra ↑tool life
Conventional (Up)tool exits ← chip thickness increases ← ↑heat ↓Ra
When Climbalways on modern CNC — Backlash compensated
When Conventionalold machines / hard-skinned material / First Pass
Interrupted CutConventional — ↓Chip Hammering
▸ Modern CNC: always Climb — better finish, less heat
▸ old machine with Backlash: Conventional only!
▶ YouTube
▸ old machine with Backlash: Conventional only!
Gantry / Bridge Mill
Large Parts
Structurebridge moves over fixed table — huge parts
TravelX: 2-30m · Y: 1-8m · Z: 0.5-3m
Uselarge molds, structures, templates, shipbuilding
ManufacturersWaldrich, INNSE, Mecof, FPT
▶ YouTube
Milling Parameters — Quick Ref
By Material
| Material | Vc (m/min) | fz (mm/z) | ae/D | ap/D |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Al 6061 | 400-1200 | 0.05-0.15 | 0.5-1.0 | 0.5-2.0 |
| Steel 1045 | 80-200 | 0.03-0.08 | 0.3-0.6 | 0.3-1.0 |
| Steel 4140 | 60-150 | 0.02-0.06 | 0.2-0.5 | 0.2-0.8 |
| SS 304 | 80-180 | 0.02-0.05 | 0.2-0.4 | 0.2-0.6 |
| Ti-6Al-4V | 30-60 | 0.02-0.04 | 0.05-0.1 | 1.0-3.0 |
| Inconel 718 | 20-40 | 0.01-0.03 | 0.05-0.1 | 0.5-1.5 |
| Graphite | 200-600 | 0.05-0.15 | 0.5-1.0 | 0.5-2.0 |
🔩 Drilling, Tapping, Reaming, Boring
Drilling Operations
Drill Types
Twist Drillthe most common — HSS/Carbide
Carbide Drill↑speed x3 · ↑accuracy · with Coolant Through
Indexable Drillfor medium ← large diameter · ↓tool cost
Gun Drilldeep holes L/D>10 · internal coolant
Step Drillsteps ← multiple diameters in one pass
Centeringcenter point before drilling — Spot Drill
Peck DrillingG83 — chip clearing in deep holes
L/D Ratio<5D=simple · 5-10D=caution · >10D=Gun Drill
▸ Point Angle: 118° general · 135° Al · 90° plastic
▸ Web Thinning: for small holes — ↓force
▸ Peck G83 for deep holes — prevents breakage
▶ YouTube
▸ Web Thinning: for small holes — ↓force
▸ Peck G83 for deep holes — prevents breakage
Tapping
Thread Cutting
Cutting Tapcutting tap — chips · for hard materials
Form Tapforming tap — no chips · Al/Cu/soft steel
Spiral Flutechips up ← blind holes
Spiral Pointchips forward ← through holes
Thread Millthread milling ← various sizes, blind/through hole
G-CodeG84 Rigid Tapping · G74 Left-Hand
Tapping VcAl: 30-60 · Steel: 8-20 · SS: 5-12 m/min
▸ Rigid Tapping: mandatory in CNC — bypasses M19
▸ Form Tap in Al: ↑thread strength, no chips
▸ Thread Mill: flexible ← multiple sizes with one tool
▶ YouTube
▸ Form Tap in Al: ↑thread strength, no chips
▸ Thread Mill: flexible ← multiple sizes with one tool
Reaming — Hole Finishing
↑AccuracyIT6-IT7
Principlesmall removal (0.1-0.5mm) ← ↑accuracy ↑Ra
AccuracyIT6-IT7 · H7 easily
Ra0.4-1.6μm
Hand Reamermanual — ↑accuracy, ↓speed
Machine Reameron CNC — Vc=25-50% of drilling
Adjustableadjustable reamer ← various diameters
Coolantmandatory! ← ↑Ra, ↑tool life
▸ Stock before Ream: 0.2-0.5mm smaller than final diameter
▸ ↓Vc and ↑fn vs. Drilling — ← good finish
▸ never Peck Reaming!
▶ YouTube
▸ ↓Vc and ↑fn vs. Drilling — ← good finish
▸ never Peck Reaming!
Boring — Precision Internal Turning
IT5-IT7↑Accuracy
Single Pointone tool ← maximum accuracy, flexible
Fine Boring±0.001mm ← ← micron adjustment
AccuracyIT5-IT7 · ideal for H6/H7
Ra0.4-1.6μm
Boring HeadWohlhaupter, ISCAR, Sandvik Coromant
Anti-Vibration BarSandvik Silent Tools — L/D>6
▸ Single Point Boring = ↑accuracy vs. Reamer
▸ anti-vibration Boring Bar for L/D>4
▸ measure after every pass — can\'t add material back!
▶ YouTube
▸ anti-vibration Boring Bar for L/D>4
▸ measure after every pass — can\'t add material back!
Counterbore / Countersink / Spotface
Special Operations
Counterboreflat-bottom recess ← bolt head ISO 4762
Countersink (CSK)conical recess — 90° / 82° / 120°
Spotfacelocal flattening ← bolt seat on uneven surface
Back Boringboring from the back ← front access only
Deep HoleGun Drill · BTA Drill · Ejector Drill
▶ YouTube
Gun Drill — Deep Hole Drilling
L/D > 10Internal Coolant
Principlehollow tube + high-pressure internal coolant
Coolant Pressure40-200 bar!
L/Dup to 100:1 and even more
Accuracy±0.01-0.05mm diameter · ↑straightness
Useshafts, molds, gun barrels, engine parts
ManufacturersBotek, Gühring, Allied, Sandvik
▶ YouTube
💎 Grinding
OD Grinding — External Diameter Grinding
Cylindrical↑Accuracy
Between Centersbetween centers ← highest precision
Chuckedchuck ← short parts without centers
AccuracyIT5-IT6 · ±0.001-0.005mm
Ra0.1-0.8μm
WheelAl₂O₃ for steel · CBN for hardened steel · Diamond for carbide
Coolantmandatory! ← Thermal Damage (Burn)
DressDiamond Dresser — frequent Wheel truing
▸ Grinding Burn: excess heat → residual stress change, failure
▸ Spark Out: passes with no feed — ↓Deflection error
▸ sufficient coolant ← the most critical factor!
▶ YouTube
▸ Spark Out: passes with no feed — ↓Deflection error
▸ sufficient coolant ← the most critical factor!
ID Grinding — Internal Diameter Grinding
InternalBore
Small Wheelsmaller than the hole — ↓contact, ↑wear
High RPMvery high Wheel RPM — for Arc of Contact
AccuracyIT5-IT6 · H6/H7 easily
Ra0.2-0.8μm
VIPERHigh Efficiency Deep Grinding — CBN
ManufacturersStuder, Schaudt, Okamoto, Kellenberger
▶ YouTube
Surface Grinding
Flat SurfaceIT4-IT6
Horizontal Spindlehorizontal wheel ← precise flatness
Vertical SpindleCup Wheel ← high productivity
Magnetic Chuckmagnetic holding ← ferromagnetic parts
Vacuum ChuckAl/SS/plastic — non-magnetic
Accuracy±0.001-0.005mm · IT4-IT6
Ra0.1-0.8μm
ManufacturersOkamoto, Jones&Shipman, Chevalier, Hauser
▶ YouTube
Centerless Grinding
Mass ProductionHigh Performance
PrincipleGrinding Wheel + Regulating Wheel + Work Rest
Through-Feedpart passes through → long bar / large volumes
In-Feedpart stays in place → complex shape
Ratevery fast — millions of units per day
Accuracy±0.001-0.003mm · excellent roundness
Useshafts, rollers, pins, rods
▸ Work Rest Blade — height above center is critical
▸ Ovality: Work Rest too low ← ← correction needed
▶ YouTube
▸ Ovality: Work Rest too low ← ← correction needed
Tool & Cutter Grinding
Tool Grinding
UseEnd Mills, Drills, Taps, Form Tools — resharpening
5-Axisgrinding complex tools — End Mills, Ball Mills
WheelDiamond (carbide tools) · CBN (HSS) · Al₂O₃ (HSS)
ManufacturersANCA, WALTER, Vollmer, NUM
SoftwareNUMROTO, ToolStudio, ZOLLER Venturion
▶ YouTube
CBN / Diamond Grinding — Advanced Grinding
Superabrasives
CBNfor hardened steel >45HRC · ↑wheel life
Diamondfor carbide, ceramics, glass, PCD
HEDGHigh Efficiency Deep Grinding — ↑MRR
Vitrified CBNporous for Through-Wheel coolant
ElectroplatedSingle Layer — precise profile
▸ CBN wheel doesn\'t need frequent Dress ← ↑stability
▸ fast ROI in mass production of hardened steel
▶ YouTube
▸ fast ROI in mass production of hardened steel
Honing & Lapping — Advanced Finishing
HoningLapping
Honingrotation + axial motion ← improved edges
Honing Ra0.05-0.4μm · Cylinder Bore = always Honing
Lappingrubbing with Abrasive Slurry ← absolute flatness
Lapping Ra0.01-0.1μm — valves, gauge blocks
SuperfinishingRa<0.02μm — bearings, compressors
Honing Useengine cylinders, hydraulic cylinders, bearings
▶ YouTube
🛠️ Cutting Tools
Carbide Inserts
ISO 1832
CNMG ShapeC=80° Rhombic · 2 corners · Roughing
DNMG ShapeD=55° · flexible for profiles · 2 corners
VNMG ShapeV=35° · sharp · finishing and complex profiles
TNMG ShapeT=60° · 3 corners · economical
RCMT Shaperound · ↑edge strength · heavy Roughing
SNMG ShapeS=90° · 4 corners · ↑economy
ISO ClassificationP=steel · M=SS · K=CI · N=Al · S=Ti/Ni · H=hardened
CVD CoatingTiC+Al₂O₃+TiN — heat resistant for steel
PVD CoatingTiAlN/TiN/AlCrN — sharp edges for SS/Ti
▸ CVD = thicker coating → steels
▸ PVD = sharper edge → SS, Ti, Al
▸ Wiper Insert: low Ra at double feed
▶ YouTube
▸ PVD = sharper edge → SS, Ti, Al
▸ Wiper Insert: low Ra at double feed
End Mills
Solid Carbide
2-FluteAl, plastic — ↑chip clearance area
3-FluteAl/soft steel — ↑productivity vs. 2
4-Flutesteel — ↑strength, ↓chip clearance
5-7 Flutehard steel · finishing — small fz
Ball End Mill3D surfaces — Scallop · Step-over
Bull NoseCorner Radius — ↑edge strength vs. Flat
Taper End MillDraft Angles · Molds
Variable Helix↓Chatter — varying helix angles
Helix Angle30°=general · 45°=↑Ra · 55°=Al
▶ YouTube
Milling Cutters
Face/Shell Mills
Face Millsurface flattening — 45°/75°/90° Lead
Shell End Millshoulder milling — 90° shoulder
High Feed Millvery small ap, high fz — ↑MRR
T-Slot CutterT-slots — Dovetail/T-Slot
Dovetaildovetail-shaped groove
Thread Millthread milling — all sizes with one tool
Chamfer Millchamfer — 45°/60°/90°
WoodruffWoodruff Key Slot — common
▶ YouTube
Tool Holders
HSK/BT/CAT
BT30/40/507:24 Taper — common ATC · ↓accuracy vs. HSK
HSK-A63Hollow Shank — ↑RPM, ↑accuracy, Face Contact
CAT40/50ANSI — common in USA
Collet Chuck (ER)ER16/25/32/40 — flexible, ↑accuracy vs. Side Lock
Shrink Fit↑↑accuracy · ↑Run-out control — heat + shrink
Hydraulic Chuck↑grip, ↓vibration — for finishing
Milling ChuckBig Plus — Face+Taper Contact
▸ Runout critical: Shrink=0.001mm · ER=0.005mm
▸ HSK at high speed: ↑Clamping Force with RPM
▶ YouTube
▸ HSK at high speed: ↑Clamping Force with RPM
Drills
Drill Types
Jobber DrillL/D=9-14 · typical Vc per material
Stub DrillL/D<5 · ↑rigidity for precise holes
Carbide Solid↑Vc×3 · ↑Ra · Through Coolant
Indexablediameter >12mm ← ↓tool cost
Spade Drilllarge diameter >25mm · for medium volumes
Point Angle118°=general · 135°=carbide/SS · 90°=plastic
Helix Angle25-30°=general · 10-15°=CI · 40°=Al
▶ YouTube
Tool Coatings
PVD / CVD
TiNgold · general · ↑life ×2-4 · 600°C
TiCN↑hardness vs. TiN · steel/CI · 400°C
TiAlNgray-purple · ↑heat · Ti/SS · 800°C
AlTiNdry cutting · 900°C
AlCrN↑oxidation resistance · High-Temp Machining
DLCAl/Cu/plastic · ↓friction · not for steel!
CVD Al₂O₃thick layer · ↑life in steel
NanocompositeAlTiSiN/TiAlSiN — hard + anti-wear
▶ YouTube
📊 Cutting Parameters
Basic Formulas
🔄 Turning
n (RPM)= 1000 × Vc / (π × D)
Vf= n × fn (mm/min)
MRR= Vc × fn × ap (cm³/min)
Pc= Fc × Vc / 60,000 (kW)
Fc= kc × b × h (N)
⚙️ Milling
n (RPM)= 1000 × Vc / (π × Dc)
Vf= fz × z × n (mm/min)
MRR= ae × ap × Vf / 1000 (cm³/min)
Pc= MRR × kc / 60,000,000 (kW)
tc= L / Vf (minutes)
kc — Specific Cutting Force
| Material | kc₁ (N/mm²) | mc | Vc Turning | Vc Milling | Recommended Tool |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Steel C15 (1018) | 1500 | 0.26 | 200-300 | 150-250 | TiCN/TiAlN |
| Steel C45 (1045) | 1700 | 0.26 | 150-250 | 100-200 | TiCN/TiAlN |
| Steel 4140 Q&T | 2000 | 0.28 | 100-200 | 80-150 | TiAlN CVD |
| Steel 4340 | 2200 | 0.28 | 80-180 | 60-130 | TiAlN+ |
| SS 304/316 | 2000 | 0.30 | 150-250 | 80-180 | PVD TiAlN |
| SS 17-4PH | 2300 | 0.30 | 100-180 | 60-130 | TiAlN+ |
| Al 6061-T6 | 700 | 0.24 | 400-800 | 300-1200 | DLC/Uncoated |
| Al 7075-T6 | 750 | 0.24 | 350-700 | 250-1000 | DLC/TiN |
| Ti-6Al-4V | 1100 | 0.22 | 40-80 | 30-60 | TiAlN+Coolant |
| Inconel 718 | 2600 | 0.30 | 25-50 | 20-40 | TiAlN/CBN |
| Cast Iron GCI | 900 | 0.26 | 150-250 | 100-200 | TiCN/Ceramic |
| Ductile Iron | 1000 | 0.27 | 120-220 | 80-160 | TiCN |
| Copper C110 | 700 | 0.25 | 300-600 | 200-400 | HSS/Carbide |
| Brass C260 | 600 | 0.25 | 300-600 | 200-500 | HSS/Carbide |
| GFRP/CFRP | 350 | 0.20 | 100-300 | 100-400 | Diamond/PCD |
| POM (Acetal) | 300 | 0.22 | 200-400 | 200-600 | HSS/Carbide |
Taylor Tool Life Equation
FormulaVcTn = C → T = (C/Vc)^(1/n)
n (HSS)≈0.1-0.2 (very sensitive to speed!)
n (Carbide)≈0.2-0.4
n (Ceramic)≈0.5-0.7
Rule of ThumbVc ×2 → T ÷ 2^(1/n)
VB WearVBmax=0.3mm Roughing · 0.1-0.2 Finishing
▸ n=0.25: Vc×2 → T×0.177 (tool lasts only 18% as long!)
▸ ↑fn ← less effect on life vs. Vc
▶ YouTube
▸ ↑fn ← less effect on life vs. Vc
Parameter Selection for Hard Materials
Ti · Inconel · HRC50+
Ti-6Al-4V↓Vc, ↑fn — prevents BUE and Work Hardening
Inconel 718Ceramic Vc=200-300, carbide=20-40 m/min
Hard TurningCBN: Vc=80-200 · ap=0.05-0.3 · fn=0.05-0.15
Dry vs WetCeramic: dry! · Carbide: with Coolant
Enter/Exitgradual entry/exit ← edge protection
▶ YouTube
💻 CAM and G-Code — CNC Programming
Leading CAM Software
CAM Software
Mastercamthe most common worldwide · Turning+Milling+Multi
Siemens NXaerospace/defense · complex · Synchronized
Hypermillexcellent 5-axis · Barrel Cutter · Aerospace
PowerMillAutodesk · molds and dies
Fusion 360cloud · ↓cost · suitable for SME
CATIA MachiningDassault · aerospace
GibbsCAMTurning · Swiss · Multi-Tasking
SolidCAMiMachining — ↑MRR algorithmic
▶ YouTube
G-Code — Main Codes
ISO 6983
G00rapid move — no cutting
G01linear feed F___ — cutting
G02/G03arc CW/CCW — R___ or I,J,K
G17/18/19plane selection XY/XZ/YZ
G28return to Home Position
G40/41/42cancel/left/right Compensation
G43/44Tool Length Compensation
G54-G59Work Offsets — coordinate systems
G73/83Chip Breaking / Peck Drilling
G76Threading Cycle (Turning)
G84Rigid Tapping Cycle
G96Constant Surface Speed (CSS)
▶ YouTube
M-Code — Machine Commands
Machine Functions
M00/M01stop / optional stop
M02/M30program end / Reset
M03/M04Spindle CW / CCW
M05Spindle stop
M06tool change (ATC)
M08/M09Coolant ON/OFF
M19Spindle Orient
M10/M114th Axis Clamp/Unclamp
Toolpaths — Strategies
Strategies
Zigzagback-and-forth — simple, ↑Retract
Spiralcenter outward / outside in — ↑Ra
Morphedflowing profile — 3D surfaces
WaterlineZ-Level — vertical walls
Pencilcorners ← ← cleanup
ScallopScallop height control — ↑uniform Ra
TrochoidalDynamic Milling — ↑MRR, ↓heat
Adaptive ClearingFusion/Hypermill — smart Trochoidal
▶ YouTube
Fanuc vs Siemens vs Heidenhain
CNC Controllers
Fanucthe most common — Series 0i/16/18/31i
Siemens 840DSinumerik — flexible, aerospace/automotive
Heidenhain TNCDialog programming — user-friendly, ↑accuracy
Mitsubishi M80Japan/Asia — Swiss Type
HAAS ControlFanuc-Like — ↓cost, SME
NUM FlexiumTool Grinding — ANCA/WALTER
▶ YouTube
🗜️ Workholding
Vises
Milling Vise
Kurt D688industry standard — ↑accuracy · Swivel Base
Precision Vise±0.001mm Parallelism — finishing
Self-Centeringautomatic centering ← ←← round parts
Modular ViseChick/5thAxis — fast changeover, Multi-Part
Toe Clampsfor parts that don\'t fit in vises
Zero-PointVero-S/System 3R — ← ← fast changeover
▶ YouTube
Chucks
Chuck Types
3-Jaw Self-Centeringfast · medium accuracy ±0.05-0.1mm
4-Jaw Independent↑accuracy · ↑setup time · Eccentric
Collet ChuckER/5C/16C — ↑accuracy ±0.005-0.02mm
Hydraulic Chuck↑support · ↓vibration · ↑grip
Power Chuckhydraulic/pneumatic clamping ← ↑RPM
Pneumaticfast open/close — mass production
Pie Jawfor large parts / special designs
▶ YouTube
Fixtures
Custom Fixturing
Dedicated Fixturepurpose-built fixture — ↑accuracy, ↑setup time
Modular Fixturemodular clamps — flexible, ↑cost
Vacuum Fixturesuction — thin/delicate parts
Pneumatic Fixtureautomatic clamping ← ↑speed
Zero-Point PalletsVero-S/System 3R — ↓Setup ×10
5-Axis Fixture↑tool access from every side
▸ 3-2-1 Locating — setup principle:
Plane(3pts) + Line(2pts) + Point(1pt)
▸ Clamping always against Support Points!
▶ YouTube
Plane(3pts) + Line(2pts) + Point(1pt)
▸ Clamping always against Support Points!
Tombstone & Pallet Systems
HMC Fixturing
Tombstonevertical column on HMC table — 4 faces
Pallet Changer2-20 pallets ← ↑Uptime
Multi-Part Setupmultiple parts on one pallet ← ↑ROI
RepeatabilityPallet ←← ±0.002-0.005mm
▶ YouTube
💧 Coolant & Lubrication
Coolant Types
Coolant Types
Flood Coolanttraditional flood — cooling + chip evacuation
Through Spindlethrough the spindle at high pressure 20-120 bar
MQLoil+air 15-100ml/h — ↓consumption ×50
Dryno coolant — Ceramic/AlTiN · ↑Vc
CryogenicLN₂ / CO₂ — Ti/Inconel · ↑tool life
High Pressure>70 bar — chip evacuation, deep drilling
Air Blastpressurized air — plastic, carbide
▶ YouTube
Cutting Fluids
Fluid Types
Soluble Oil5-10% emulsion — general use · ↑cooling
Semi-Synthetic↑cleanliness · ↑bath life · SS/Al
Syntheticno oil — ↑cleanliness, ↓odor · ↓lubrication
Straight Oil↑↑lubrication — tapping, Broaching · ↓cooling
Concentration3-5% Roughing · 5-10% Finish/Tap
pH8-9 required! lower=bacteria, higher=corrosion
Filtration50μm Paper + Magnetic Separator
▶ YouTube
MQL — Minimum Quantity Lubrication
EnvironmentNear-Dry
Principleminimal oil+air — aerosol directed at cutting zone
Quantity15-100 ml/hour (vs. 20L/min Flood!)
Advantages↓coolant cost · ↓part cleaning · ↑eco-friendly
Disadvantagesinsufficient for Chip Evacuation · Ti/Inconel
UseAl, Cast Iron, standard steel
Through Spindle MQL↑efficiency — aerosol through the tool
▶ YouTube
Through-Spindle Coolant
TSCHigh Pressure
Pressure20-120 bar · Gun Drill: 200 bar
Main Advantagefluid reaches the cutting zone directly
Chip Evacuation↑↑ chip clearing in deep holes
Tool Life↑ 2-5x vs. Flood only
Requirementtool with internal coolant holes
▶ YouTube
📐 In-Process Quality
On-Machine Probing
RenishawIn-Process
Tool Setting Probemeasures tool length and diameter ← automatic Offset
Part Probingpart measurement before/after machining
Work OffsetG54-G59 set automatically ← ↓Setup Error
SPC Feedbackmeasurement data → automatic Offset correction
ManufacturersRenishaw, Heidenhain, Marposs, Blum
▸ ↓Scrap ← real-time correction
▸ ↑Uptime ← fast automatic Setup
▶ YouTube
▸ ↑Uptime ← fast automatic Setup
CMM — Coordinate Measuring Machine
CMMISO 10360
Bridge CMMthe most common — Zeiss/Hexagon/Brown&Sharpe
Gantry CMMhuge parts — aircraft, automotive
Arm CMMportable manual — FARO, Hexagon Romer
AccuracyMPE: 1-5μm ± L/300 (μm)
ProbeTP20/TP200 Touch · Scanning Probe
SoftwareCalypso, PC-DMIS, Quindos, Rational DMIS
Temperature20°C±1°C mandatory ← ISO 1
▶ YouTube
Surface Measurement
Ra · Rz · Rmax
Contact Profilometerscanning stylus — Ra,Rz,Rmax,Rsm
Opticalnon-contact — ↑fast, ↑flexible
Confocal3D measurement — Sa,Sz (ISO 25178)
ManufacturersMitutoyo SJ, Taylor Hobson, Zeiss
Cutoff λc0.25/0.8/2.5/8mm — per Ra and RS
▸ λc=0.8mm for most parts — ← ISO 4288
▸ Ra alone isn\'t enough — Rz matters for fatigue
▶ YouTube
▸ Ra alone isn\'t enough — Rz matters for fatigue
Hardness Testing
HRC·HB·HV
Rockwell HRChardened steel — 20-70HRC
Brinell HBCast Iron, Al — ↑contact area
Vickers HV↑accuracy, any hardness — micro/macro
Knoop HKthin layers, ceramics
Leeb (UCI)portable — field, large parts
ConversionHRC45≈HB421≈HV448 (ASTM E140)
▶ YouTube
Chatter & Vibration Analysis
Chatter
Chatterself-excited vibration — ↓Ra, ↓tool life, marks
Stability LobeSLD graph — stable/unstable by RPM+ap
FRFFrequency Response Function — Tap Test
Solutions↓ap · ↑RPM to next lobe · Variable Helix
Anti-ChatterSandvik Silent Tools · Kennametal KM4X
MonitoringAccelerometer + FFT ← Online
▶ YouTube
✂️ Cutting Technologies
🔴 Fiber Laser — 1-30kW
Most CommonN2/O20.5-30mm
Accuracy±0.05–0.15mm
Ra1.6–6.3μm
Steelup to 30mm
SS/Alup to 25mm
Speedup to 100 m/min thin sheet
GasN₂=clean edge · O₂=fast steel
SourceIPG/nLIGHT 1070nm Fiber
▸ N₂ Assist: oxide-free edge — SS, Al, Cu
▸ O₂ Assist: oxidation reaction → faster on steel
✓ the sheet metal industry\'s workhorse
✗ copper = reflective sparking ← cover glass
▶ YouTube▸ O₂ Assist: oxidation reaction → faster on steel
✓ the sheet metal industry\'s workhorse
✗ copper = reflective sparking ← cover glass
🔴 Fiber Laser 3D — Tube Cutting
Tube3DTrumpf/Amada
Typesround/square/oval/profile tube
AxisA+B+C — angled cutting up to 45°
Accuracy±0.1–0.2mm
Useframes, structures, automotive, furniture
✓ holes, notches, angled cuts on tubes
✗ limited to tubes and profiles
▶ YouTube✗ limited to tubes and profiles
🟠 CO2 Laser
1-6kWPlastic+Wood
Accuracy±0.1–0.3mm
Plastic/Woodup to 25mm
Metalup to 12mm
Wavelength10.6μm — CO₂ gas
✓ Acrylic/PMMA — edge like polished glass!
✓ wood, transparent plastic, cardboard
✗ Fiber Laser is better for any metal
▶ YouTube✓ wood, transparent plastic, cardboard
✗ Fiber Laser is better for any metal
🟠 UV Laser
355nmPCBCold
Wavelength355nm UV
Thickness0.01–0.5mm
Accuracy±0.01–0.05mm
UsePCB, polymers, glass, OLED
✓ Cold Processing — no HAZ!
✗ thin materials only
▶ YouTube✗ thin materials only
💧 Abrasive Waterjet
Any Material!No HAZCFRP
AbrasiveGarnet 80-120 mesh
Pressure380–600 MPa · jet speed 900 m/s
Thickness0.5–200mm
Accuracy±0.1–0.3mm
Ra3.2–12.5μm
Materialsmetal, CFRP, glass, ceramic, Ti
▸ CFRP: Waterjet only! Laser/plasma = burning
▸ Thick Ti-6Al-4V: ideal solution
✓ no HAZ = no thermal distortion
✗ thickness>100mm = very slow
▶ YouTube▸ Thick Ti-6Al-4V: ideal solution
✓ no HAZ = no thermal distortion
✗ thickness>100mm = very slow
💧 5-Axis Waterjet
5-AxisTaper Comp
AxisA+B — tilt up to 60°
UseTaper Compensation, angled cutting
ManufacturersFlow, OMAX, Bystronic
✓ Taper Compensation → perfectly straight edge
✓ angled cutting for bases, covers
▶ YouTube✓ angled cutting for bases, covers
🔶 Plasma CNC
1-150mmFastCheap
Accuracy±0.5–2.0mm
Ra6.3–25μm
GasN₂/O₂/Air/H35/ArH
Materialsany electrical conductor
▸ O₂: fast on steel. N₂: clean SS. Air: cheap
✓ very thick plates. Fast. Cheap
✗ large HAZ → possible distortion
▶ YouTube✓ very thick plates. Fast. Cheap
✗ large HAZ → possible distortion
🔶 HD Plasma — High Definition
Improved AccuracyHypertherm
Accuracy±0.3–0.8mm
Ra3.2–6.3μm
ManufacturersHypertherm XPR300, Lincoln Tomahawk
✓ improved accuracy — ← for structural cutting
✗ more expensive than Air Plasma
▶ YouTube✗ more expensive than Air Plasma
🔥 Oxyfuel — Gas-Oxygen
Steel Only!300mm
Thickness10–300mm
Accuracy±1.0–3.0mm
Ra12.5–50μm
GasC₂H₂/Propane/Natural Gas + O₂
Materialscarbon steel only!
▸ Not for SS, Al, Ti! don\'t oxidize
✓ plates ×300mm thick. Very cheap
✓ usable in the field without electricity
✗ huge HAZ. Lowest accuracy
▶ YouTube✓ plates ×300mm thick. Very cheap
✓ usable in the field without electricity
✗ huge HAZ. Lowest accuracy
⬜ Guillotine / Shearing
StraightFast
Accuracy±0.2–0.5mm
Thickness0.5–16mm
Lengthup to 6m
Speedup to 40 cuts/minute
✓ fast for straight strips. No HAZ
✗ straight cuts only! Edge has burr
▶ YouTube✗ straight cuts only! Edge has burr
🔪 Band/Cold Saw
Bar StockCold
Accuracy±0.3–1.0mm
Cold Sawclean edge without heat
Usecutting bar stock to length
✓ Cold Saw = clean edge
✗ rough cutting only
▶ YouTube✗ rough cutting only
| Technology | Accuracy ±mm | Ra μm | Max Thickness | HAZ | Materials | Relative Cost |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fiber Laser | 0.05–0.15 | 1.6–6.3 | 30mm steel | small | metals | ⭐⭐⭐ |
| CO2 Laser | 0.1–0.3 | 1.6–6.3 | 12mm metal | small | metal+plastic+wood | ⭐⭐⭐ |
| Waterjet | 0.1–0.3 | 3.2–12.5 | 200mm | none! | any material! | ⭐⭐ |
| HD Plasma | 0.3–0.8 | 3.2–6.3 | 150mm | large | conductors | ⭐⭐ |
| Oxyfuel | 1.0–3.0 | 12.5–50 | 300mm | huge | steel only | ⭐ |
| Shearing | 0.2–0.5 | 3.2–6.3 | 16mm | none | metals | ⭐ |
🔨 Bending & Sheet Forming
📐 Press Brake CNC Hydraulic
Most CommonCNCHydraulic
Angle Accuracy±0.1–0.5°
Thickness0.5–20mm steel
Force20–2000 ton
Back GaugeCNC ±0.01mm
ToolingV-Die / U-Die / Goose-Neck / Hemming
▸ Air Bending: less force, higher Springback
▸ Bottom Bending: ↓Springback
▸ Coining: high pressure → Springback ~0
✓ Offline Programming (CADMAN-B, Radan, Delem)
✗ Springback must be calculated and compensated!
▶ YouTube▸ Bottom Bending: ↓Springback
▸ Coining: high pressure → Springback ~0
✓ Offline Programming (CADMAN-B, Radan, Delem)
✗ Springback must be calculated and compensated!
📐 Press Brake Servo-Electric
Energy SavingHigh Precision
Accuracy±0.05–0.2°
Savings↓70% power consumption
Speedup to 200mm/s
ManufacturersSalvagnini, LVD, Bystronic, TRUMPF
✓ higher accuracy than hydraulic
✓ quiet — for clean rooms
✗ more expensive. Less force than hydraulic
▶ YouTube✓ quiet — for clean rooms
✗ more expensive. Less force than hydraulic
🔄 Panel Bender — Automatic
Automatic30/min
Speedup to 30 parts/minute
Useenclosures, electrical panels, medical equipment
ManufacturersSalvagnini P4, Prima Power
✓ full automation — arm + panel
✗ limited to specific geometry
▶ YouTube✗ limited to specific geometry
🔄 4-Roll Bending
4 RollsStraight Edge
Thickness1.5–100mm
Min. Radius5× thickness
Advantagestraight edges ← pre-bending
Accuracy±1–3mm
✓ straight edges ← no flat spot
✓ faster than 3 Roll
▶ YouTube✓ faster than 3 Roll
🔄 3-Roll Bending
3 RollsCylinders
Thickness1.5–100mm
Lengthup to 6m
Usecylinders, half-cylinders, drums, tanks
✗ straight edges → separate pre-bending required
▶ YouTube🪈 CNC Rotary Draw Bending
CNCMandrelSmall Radius
Accuracy±0.5°, ±1mm
Min. Radius1.5×D with Mandrel · 3×D without
Multiple BendsCNC: several bends in one setup
ToolingCLR Die + Wiper Die + Mandrel + Pressure Die
▸ Mandrel: prevents internal Collapse
✓ hydraulic tubing, frames, exhaust
✗ D/t <3 → Mandrel mandatory
▶ YouTube✓ hydraulic tubing, frames, exhaust
✗ D/t <3 → Mandrel mandatory
🪈 Push Bending
FastNo Mandrel
Radius≥3×D
Usefurniture, handles, frames
✓ fast for runs and large radius
✗ distortion when D/t is small
▶ YouTube✗ distortion when D/t is small
🏺 Deep Drawing
CupsCansMass Production
DRDrawing Ratio = D_blank/D_punch ≤ 2.0
Materialssteel 1008 · Al 1100/3003 · sheet
Thickness0.3–6mm
Blank HolderForce ← prevents Wrinkling
▸ Ironing: a stage for tightening wall thickness
✓ canned goods, motor housings, switches
✗ Earing, Wrinkling, Tearing
▶ YouTube✓ canned goods, motor housings, switches
✗ Earing, Wrinkling, Tearing
🌀 Metal Spinning
RotationalSmall Batch
MaterialsAl, Cu, SS 0.5–6mm
Accuracy±0.5mm
ToolingMandrel + Roller
CNCPower Spinning = volume production
✓ cheaper tooling than Deep Drawing
✓ small batches, cones, covers
✗ rotational shapes only
▶ YouTube✓ small batches, cones, covers
✗ rotational shapes only
📏 Roll Forming — Continuous Profile Rolling
Continuous60 m/min
Speed10–60 m/min
Roll Stands8–24 stations
Materialssheet 0.3–6mm
ProfileU/C/Z/Hat/Stud/Channel
✓ continuous profile production — very fast
✓ roofing, walls, shelving, partitions
✗ Roll Set expensive for first setup
▶ YouTube✓ roofing, walls, shelving, partitions
✗ Roll Set expensive for first setup
💧 Hydroforming
100-600 MPaSS/Ti
Pressure100–600 MPa
MaterialsAl, SS, Ti, AHSS
TypesSheet Hydroforming / Tube Hydroforming
Useautomotive suspension arms, frames
✓ complex shapes in one setup
✓ automotive — body parts
✗ expensive. Slow cycle
▶ YouTube✓ automotive — body parts
✗ expensive. Slow cycle
| Material | Typical Springback | Recommended Compensation | Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| Steel 1008 soft | 2–4° | Bend +3° | Air Bend V/t=8 |
| Steel HSLA 350 | 5–8° | Coining or compensation | ↑RM = ↑Springback |
| SS 304 | 8–15° | Bottom Bend mandatory | Work Hardening ↑↑ |
| Al 5052-H32 | 6–10° | CAD Springback Calc | higher than Al norm |
| Al 6061-T6 | 10–15° | Anneal before bending | T6 = very hard |
| Ti-6Al-4V | 15–25° | FEA Simulation | Hot Forming preferred |
🔩 Punching & Stamping
Punching — separating material with a Punch+Die tool. Clearance is critical! 5-10% × thickness. Burr faces the tool direction.
CNC Turret Punch
20-72 toolsFlexible±0.1mm
Accuracy±0.1–0.3mm
Speedup to 1,000 hits/minute
Thickness0.5–6mm (steel)
ToolingRound/Square/Rectangle/Forming
ManufacturersTRUMPF, Amada, LVD, Euromac
Single Hit, Nibbling, Forming (Louvers, Lance, Emboss)
Auto Tool Change between tools
✓ flexible — small-medium volumes
✓ program change in 5 minutes
✗ slower than Progressive Die
▶ YouTubeAuto Tool Change between tools
✓ flexible — small-medium volumes
✓ program change in 5 minutes
✗ slower than Progressive Die
Multi-Tool Turret — Forming Tools
FormingLouvers
Special ToolsLouvers, Knocking, Lance, Emboss, Countersink
Advantagefewer Operations — time savings
✓ Louvers, Ribs, Lance-and-form — in one punch
✓ ↓Operations = ↓cost
▶ YouTube✓ ↓Operations = ↓cost
Progressive Die
800/minVolume±0.05mm
Accuracy±0.05–0.15mm
Speed20–800 parts/minute!
Stages5–20 stations: Cut→Pierce→Bend→Form→Separate
Min. Quantity10,000–100,000+ units
Tool Cost$10,000–$500,000
Coil Strip goes in — finished part comes out!
Pilot Pins locate position precisely between stations
✓ the fastest and cheapest for high volumes
✓ wire → finished part in one pass
✗ a change means a new tool
✗ high tool cost
▶ YouTubePilot Pins locate position precisely between stations
✓ the fastest and cheapest for high volumes
✓ wire → finished part in one pass
✗ a change means a new tool
✗ high tool cost
Fine Blanking Press
90° Edge±0.01mmV-Ring
Accuracy±0.01–0.05mm
Edge Ra0.4–1.6μm — perfectly flat!
Thickness1–15mm
V-Ringaround the notch — prevents Tearing
Counter Forceprotects the material from Laceration
Perfectly straight 90° edge — not the usual 45°!
3 forces: Blanking + V-Ring + Counter Force
✓ gears, switches, safety parts
✓ ↓subsequent machining
✗ unique 3-force press — expensive
▶ YouTube3 forces: Blanking + V-Ring + Counter Force
✓ gears, switches, safety parts
✓ ↓subsequent machining
✗ unique 3-force press — expensive
Progressive Die
800/minVolume±0.05mm
Accuracy±0.05–0.15mm
Speed20–800 parts/minute!
Stages5–20 stations: Cut→Pierce→Bend→Form→Separate
Min. Quantity10,000–100,000+ units
Tool Cost$10,000–$500,000
Coil Strip goes in — finished part comes out!
Pilot Pins locate position precisely between stations
✓ the fastest and cheapest for high volumes
✓ wire → finished part in one pass
✗ a change means a new tool
✗ high tool cost
▶ YouTubePilot Pins locate position precisely between stations
✓ the fastest and cheapest for high volumes
✓ wire → finished part in one pass
✗ a change means a new tool
✗ high tool cost
Fine Blanking Press
90° Edge±0.01mmV-Ring
Accuracy±0.01–0.05mm
Edge Ra0.4–1.6μm — perfectly flat!
Thickness1–15mm
V-Ringaround the notch — prevents Tearing
Counter Forceprotects the material from Laceration
Perfectly straight 90° edge — not the usual 45°!
3 forces: Blanking + V-Ring + Counter Force
✓ gears, switches, safety parts
✓ ↓subsequent machining
✗ unique 3-force press — expensive
▶ YouTube3 forces: Blanking + V-Ring + Counter Force
✓ gears, switches, safety parts
✓ ↓subsequent machining
✗ unique 3-force press — expensive
Transfer Die Stamping
StationsLarge Parts
Stages3–12 stations in one press
Useautomotive parts, large assemblies, structural parts
TransferMechanical Fingers / Robot
vs Progressive: Transfer=part separated between stations. Progressive=part stays attached to Coil
✓ for large parts unsuitable for Progressive
✗ less flexible
▶ YouTube✓ for large parts unsuitable for Progressive
✗ less flexible
Servo Press
CNCAccuracyEnergy
Controlfull motion control over Stroke
Accuracy±0.01mm
Savings↓50% energy
ManufacturersKomatsu, Aida, Schuler
✓ full Motion Control — Stroke adapted to process
✓ bright, quiet, high accuracy
✗ very expensive
▶ YouTube✓ bright, quiet, high accuracy
✗ very expensive
Laser+Punch Combo
ComboMaximum Flexibility
Usepunching + cutting in one setting
ManufacturersTRUMPF TruMatic, Amada EML/EMK
Advantagefast punching + laser for complex shapes
✓ small-medium volumes with complex geometry
✓ saves transfer between machines
✗ very expensive
▶ YouTube✓ saves transfer between machines
✗ very expensive
Impact Extrusion
Al/Zn/MgCold
MaterialsAl, Zn, Mg, Pb — soft
Usetubes, aerosol bodies, cans, capsules
Processone hit → finished body
Accuracy±0.1–0.3mm
Forward / Backward / Combined Extrusion
✓ finished body from one hit — very fast
✓ good Ra directly from the tool
✗ limited to soft materials
▶ YouTube✓ finished body from one hit — very fast
✓ good Ra directly from the tool
✗ limited to soft materials
Blanking / Piercing
BlankingPiercing
Blankingcutting the part from the sheet (wanted piece)
Piercingpunching holes (scrap discarded)
Clearance3-10% × thickness
Clearance: small=good Ra. large=Burr
✓ the fastest for flat parts
▶ YouTube✓ the fastest for flat parts
| Technology | Accuracy | Speed | Min. Quantity | Advantage |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Turret Punch | ±0.1–0.3 | 1,000/min | 1+ | flexibility |
| Progressive Die | ±0.05–0.15 | 20–800/min | 10,000+ | speed+cost |
| Fine Blanking | ±0.01–0.05 | 20–150/min | 5,000+ | perfect edge |
| Transfer Die | ±0.1–0.3 | 10–80/min | 5,000+ | large parts |
| Impact Extrusion | ±0.1–0.3 | 200–1000/min | 10,000+ | complete body from one hit |
🎢 Casting Technologies
HPDC — High Pressure Die Casting
Al/Mg/Zn10-175 MPa1000/hour
Accuracy±0.1–0.3mm
Ra0.8–3.2μm
Speed100–1,000 units/hour
Cold ChamberAl — high T_melt
Hot ChamberZn/Mg — low T_melt
MaterialsAl:A380 · Mg:AZ91D · Zn:ZA-8
Cold Chamber = Al (external ladle). Hot Chamber = Zn/Mg (submerged in melt)
Vacuum HPDC = ↓gas porosity
✓ the fastest. Good finish. Huge volumes
✗ porosity — not for high-pressure parts
✗ mold cost $20K-$200K
▶ YouTubeVacuum HPDC = ↓gas porosity
✓ the fastest. Good finish. Huge volumes
✗ porosity — not for high-pressure parts
✗ mold cost $20K-$200K
Investment Casting — Lost Wax
AccuracyAny MetalAerospace
Accuracy±0.1–0.3mm
Ra1.6–6.3μm
MaterialsSS, Inconel, Ti, Tool Steel, Au, Ag
Stageswax — ceramic x8 — burnout — casting
Useaerospace, defense, medical, dental
Wax Injection — Shell Building 5-9 layers — Knockout
✓ the highest accuracy in casting!
✓ turbine blades, dental, jewelry
✗ 7-14 day cycle
▶ YouTube✓ the highest accuracy in casting!
✓ turbine blades, dental, jewelry
✗ 7-14 day cycle
Sand Casting
Any MaterialAny Size1 Unit!
Accuracy±1–3mm
Ra12.5–50μm
Materialssteel, cast iron, Al, Cu, Ti, Inconel
Sizefrom 10g up to 100+ tons!
Green Sand = moist sand. Shell Mold = Resin.
✓ any material, any size, cheap tooling
✗ coarse Ra — machining mandatory
▶ YouTube✓ any material, any size, cheap tooling
✗ coarse Ra — machining mandatory
Gravity Die Casting
Al/MgPermanent Mold
Accuracy±0.3–0.8mm
Usebrake components, pump housings, Al wheels
✓ less porosity than HPDC
✗ slow
▶ YouTube✗ slow
Sand Casting
Any MaterialAny Size1 Unit!
Accuracy±1–3mm
Ra12.5–50μm
Materialssteel, cast iron, Al, Cu, Ti, Inconel
Sizefrom 10g up to 100+ tons!
Green Sand = moist sand. Shell Mold = Resin.
✓ any material, any size, cheap tooling
✗ coarse Ra — machining mandatory
▶ YouTube✓ any material, any size, cheap tooling
✗ coarse Ra — machining mandatory
Gravity Die Casting
Al/MgPermanent Mold
Accuracy±0.3–0.8mm
Usebrake components, pump housings, Al wheels
✓ less porosity than HPDC
✗ slow
▶ YouTube✗ slow
| Technology | Accuracy | Ra μm | Min. Quantity | Tool Cost |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| HPDC | ±0.1–0.3 | 0.8–3.2 | 5,000+ | very high |
| Investment | ±0.1–0.3 | 1.6–6.3 | 50+ | medium |
| Gravity | ±0.3–0.8 | 1.6–3.2 | 500+ | medium |
| Sand | ±1.0–3.0 | 12.5–50 | 1! | low |
⚒ Forging Technologies
Forging — shaping metal under pressure. Grain Flow = ↑fatigue strength vs casting. Hot=↑flow. Cold=↑accuracy+Work Hardening.
Hot Forging
800-1200CGrain Flow
Accuracy±0.5–2.0mm
Ra12.5–50μm
Materialssteel, Al, Ti, Inconel
PressMechanical / Hydraulic / Drop Hammer
TypesOpen Die · Closed Die · Impression
Grain Flow = grain fibers aligned with load direction = maximum fatigue strength!
Open Die = simple tooling for large blocks
Closed Die = complex mold — near-final shape
✓ stronger than casting! Grain Flow
✗ ±2mm — machining required
▶ YouTubeOpen Die = simple tooling for large blocks
Closed Die = complex mold — near-final shape
✓ stronger than casting! Grain Flow
✗ ±2mm — machining required
Cold Forging
Room Temp.Work Hardening
Accuracy±0.01–0.1mm
Ra0.8–3.2μm
Materialssoft steel, Al, Cu
Usebolts, pins, Cold Heading
Cold Heading: bolt heads at 500/minute!
✓ accuracy + Work Hardening
✗ limited to soft materials
▶ YouTube✓ accuracy + Work Hardening
✗ limited to soft materials
Hot Forging
800-1200CGrain Flow
Accuracy±0.5–2.0mm
Ra12.5–50μm
Materialssteel, Al, Ti, Inconel
PressMechanical / Hydraulic / Drop Hammer
TypesOpen Die · Closed Die · Impression
Grain Flow = grain fibers aligned with load direction = maximum fatigue strength!
Open Die = simple tooling for large blocks
Closed Die = complex mold — near-final shape
✓ stronger than casting! Grain Flow
✗ ±2mm — machining required
▶ YouTubeOpen Die = simple tooling for large blocks
Closed Die = complex mold — near-final shape
✓ stronger than casting! Grain Flow
✗ ±2mm — machining required
Cold Forging
Room Temp.Work Hardening
Accuracy±0.01–0.1mm
Ra0.8–3.2μm
Materialssoft steel, Al, Cu
Usebolts, pins, Cold Heading
Cold Heading: bolt heads at 500/minute!
✓ accuracy + Work Hardening
✗ limited to soft materials
▶ YouTube✓ accuracy + Work Hardening
✗ limited to soft materials
Direct Extrusion
Al/Mg450-520C Al
Accuracy±0.1–0.5mm
DieH13 HRC 44-52
Speed5–30 m/min
✓ any profile continuously
✗ limited to constant profile along length
▶ YouTube✗ limited to constant profile along length
Ring Rolling
RingsGrain Flow
Materialssteel, Ti, Inconel, Al
Usebearings, flanges, crown gears
Material Utilization100%!
✓ circular Grain Flow — maximum fatigue strength
✓ no scrap!
▶ YouTube✓ no scrap!
Net-Shape Forging
Aerospace±0.1mm
Accuracy±0.1–0.3mm
Useturbines, gears, implants
Isothermaldie + part = same temp.
✓ minimal machining
✗ die very expensive (Mo/Ni alloy)
▶ YouTube✗ die very expensive (Mo/Ni alloy)
| Process | Accuracy | Grain Flow | Use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hot Closed Die | ±0.5–2.0mm | excellent | handles, drive shafts |
| Cold Forging | ±0.01–0.1mm | good | bolts, pins |
| Extrusion | ±0.1–0.5mm | elongated | Al profiles |
| Ring Rolling | ±1–5mm | circular | bearings, flanges |
| Net-Shape | ±0.1–0.3mm | excellent | aerospace, defense |
📏 Rolling Technologies
Hot Rolling
above 850CVolume
Accuracy±0.5–3mm
Ra6.3–25μm
ProductsHR Coil, plates, bars, I/H/U beams
Mill Scaleblack Fe2O3 layer
✓ fast, cheap, large volumes
✗ Mill Scale — Pickling required
▶ YouTube✗ Mill Scale — Pickling required
Hot Strip Mill
Millions of tons
Quantitymillions of tons/year!
Thickness1.2–25mm
Speedup to 20 m/s
✓ the largest-scale production in the world
▶ YouTubeCold Rolling
AccuracyRa 0.4μm
Accuracy±0.05–0.3mm
Ra0.4–1.6μm
Work Hardening↑RM 20-30% after CR
ProductsCR Sheet, DR Tinplate, Foil
Pickling before CR. Annealing after CR.
✓ high accuracy, good finish
✗ more expensive than HR
▶ YouTube✓ high accuracy, good finish
✗ more expensive than HR
Sendzimir Mill
Thin SS0.01mm
Thickness0.01–1mm!
MaterialsSS, Al Foil, Ti Foil
Accuracy±0.005mm
✓ thin SS 0.1mm — Sendzimir unique
▶ YouTubeThread Rolling
Grain Flow↑30% FatigueFast
Accuracy±0.005–0.015mm
Ra0.2–0.8μm
SizesM3–M100
Speedup to 500 bolts/minute!
Grain Flow = not cut — fatigue strength ↑30% vs cutting!
✓ the bolt production standard
✗ bar diameter must be precise
▶ YouTube✓ the bolt production standard
✗ bar diameter must be precise
Knurling
StraightDiamond
Usehandles, hand bolts, anti-rotation pins
✓ fast — a single operation. ↑grip
▶ YouTubeRoll Forming
Continuous60 m/min
Speed10–60 m/min
Roll Stands8–24
ProfileU, C, Z, Hat, Stud, Omega
✓ fast continuous production
✗ Roll Set is expensive
▶ YouTube✗ Roll Set is expensive
| Technology | Accuracy | Ra μm | Advantage |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hot Rolling | ±0.5–3.0 | 6.3–25 | fast, cheap |
| Cold Rolling | ±0.05–0.3 | 0.4–1.6 | accuracy, finish |
| Thread Rolling | ±0.005–0.015 | 0.2–0.8 | Grain Flow, fatigue |
| Roll Forming | ±0.5 | 1.6–3.2 | continuous, fast |
💎 Grinding and Finishing
Surface Grinding
±0.002mmFlatness
Accuracy±0.002–0.010mm
Ra0.1–0.8μm
Flatness0.002–0.01mm
WheelAl2O3 / SiC / CBN
Coolantmandatory! prevents Burn
Dress Wheel: Diamond Dresser for restoration.
Creep Feed: deep pass + slow feed = good Ra
✓ precise planes, tooling, Gauge Blocks
✗ heat — Thermal Damage!
▶ YouTubeCreep Feed: deep pass + slow feed = good Ra
✓ precise planes, tooling, Gauge Blocks
✗ heat — Thermal Damage!
Cylindrical Grinding — OD/ID/Centerless
ODIDCenterless
OD Accuracy±0.001–0.005mm
Ra0.1–0.4μm
ID Grinding⌀0.1mm!
Centerlessno centers — fast, bar stock
OD = external. ID = internal. Centerless = ←← ← ← ← ← bar stock
✓ bearing seats, shafts, bushings
✗ heat — Burn without sufficient coolant
▶ YouTube✓ bearing seats, shafts, bushings
✗ heat — Burn without sufficient coolant
Surface Grinding
±0.002mmFlatness
Accuracy±0.002–0.010mm
Ra0.1–0.8μm
Flatness0.002–0.01mm
WheelAl2O3 / SiC / CBN
Coolantmandatory! prevents Burn
Dress Wheel: Diamond Dresser for restoration.
Creep Feed: deep pass + slow feed = good Ra
✓ precise planes, tooling, Gauge Blocks
✗ heat — Thermal Damage!
▶ YouTubeCreep Feed: deep pass + slow feed = good Ra
✓ precise planes, tooling, Gauge Blocks
✗ heat — Thermal Damage!
Cylindrical Grinding — OD/ID/Centerless
ODIDCenterless
OD Accuracy±0.001–0.005mm
Ra0.1–0.4μm
ID Grinding⌀0.1mm!
Centerlessno centers — fast, bar stock
OD = external. ID = internal. Centerless = ←← ← ← ← ← bar stock
✓ bearing seats, shafts, bushings
✗ heat — Burn without sufficient coolant
▶ YouTube✓ bearing seats, shafts, bushings
✗ heat — Burn without sufficient coolant
Gear Grinding
DIN 4-6AGMA Q10+
AccuracyDIN 4-6 / AGMA Q10-Q12
Ra0.2–0.8μm
MethodsProfile / Generating (Klingelnberg)
✓ after heat treatment — corrects distortion
✗ very expensive machine
▶ YouTube✗ very expensive machine
CBN / Diamond Grinding
CBNCarbide
CBNfor hardened steel HRC 58+
Diamondfor carbide, ceramic, CFRP
G-Ratio100x Al2O3!
✓ maximum tool life
✓ Diamond = the only option for carbide
▶ YouTube✓ Diamond = the only option for carbide
Honing
Cross-Hatch±0.0005mm
Accuracy±0.0005–0.003mm
Ra0.1–0.4μm
Cross-Hatch55-65° = oil retention!
Useengine cylinders, pumps, valves
Cross-Hatch Pattern = prevents Wiping = ↑oil retention
Plateau Honing: removes peaks
✓ engine cylinders — Honing mandatory!
✗ straight holes only
▶ YouTubePlateau Honing: removes peaks
✓ engine cylinders — Honing mandatory!
✗ straight holes only
Lapping
Ra 0.025μm±0.0002mm
Accuracy±0.0002–0.001mm
Ra0.025–0.1μm
MethodAl2O3/Diamond powder + pressure
Usevalves, optical elements, Gauge Blocks
Figure-of-8 Motion for uniform wear distribution
✓ the finest finish possible
✗ very slow. Not for complex shapes
▶ YouTube✓ the finest finish possible
✗ very slow. Not for complex shapes
Superfinishing / Burnishing
Ra 0.025μm
Ra0.025–0.1μm
Usegenerator shafts, premium bearings
Burnishing = surface compression = ↓Ra + ↑compressive stress
✓ ↑fatigue resistance
▶ YouTube✓ ↑fatigue resistance
| Technology | Accuracy | Ra μm | Use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Surface Grinding | ±0.002–0.010 | 0.1–0.8 | planes, tooling |
| Cylindrical OD | ±0.001–0.005 | 0.1–0.4 | bearing seats, shafts |
| Gear Grinding | DIN 4-6 | 0.2–0.8 | precision gears |
| Honing | ±0.0005–0.003 | 0.1–0.4 | engine cylinders |
| Lapping | ±0.0002–0.001 | 0.025–0.1 | valves, optics |
⚡ EDM and Electrical Machining
Sinker EDM
MoldsH13/D2Graphite/Cu
Accuracy±0.005–0.025mm
Ra0.4–6.3μm (depends on Energy)
Electrodegraphite (fast) / copper (good Ra)
DielectricEDM oil / Deionized Water
Recast Layer5–25μm
Roughing vs Finishing: Energy↓ = Ra↓ + time↑
Graphite = fast. Cu = better Ra
✓ H13, D2, Carbide — no problem
✓ no cutting forces
✗ Recast Layer — brittle, must be removed
✗ conductors only
▶ YouTubeGraphite = fast. Cu = better Ra
✓ H13, D2, Carbide — no problem
✓ no cutting forces
✗ Recast Layer — brittle, must be removed
✗ conductors only
Orbital EDM
Good RaPrecise
Methodelectrode moves in orbital path
Advantagebetter Ra. less electrode wear
✓ Ra↓↓ + higher accuracy
▶ YouTubeWire EDM — WEDM
Profiles±0.002mmTaper
Accuracy±0.002–0.008mm
Ra0.1–1.6μm
WireCopper/Mo ⌀0.1–0.3mm
Taperup to ±30°
Recast Layer1–5μm
Taper Cut: different top/bottom angle
✓ tooling, molds, Extrusion Dies, Carbide WC
✓ Skim Cuts = Ra 0.05μm
✗ through holes only (not blind)
▶ YouTube✓ tooling, molds, Extrusion Dies, Carbide WC
✓ Skim Cuts = Ra 0.05μm
✗ through holes only (not blind)
WEDM Skim Cuts
Ra 0.05μm3 Skims
StageRough — Semi — 3x Skim Cuts
Ra0.05–0.1μm after 3 Skims!
Accuracy±0.001–0.003mm
✓ Skim Cuts = Recast nearly 0
✗ 3-5x longer than Rough
▶ YouTube✗ 3-5x longer than Rough
ECM — Electrochemical Machining
No Recast!Low Ra
Accuracy±0.01–0.05mm
Ra0.05–0.5μm
ElectrolyteNaCl / NaNO3
Advantageanodic Dissolution — no heat, no Recast!
No Recast Layer = for critical parts!
No residual stress
✓ Inconel turbine blades
✗ medium accuracy. Expensive equipment
▶ YouTubeNo residual stress
✓ Inconel turbine blades
✗ medium accuracy. Expensive equipment
Fast Hole EDM
⌀0.1-6mmDeep
Diameter⌀0.1–6mm
Speed20–60mm/min
Electrodecopper/W/Cu-W tube
Useturbine cooling holes, WEDM wire start holes
✓ WEDM wire start hole
✓ ⌀0.3mm turbine blade cooling holes
▶ YouTube✓ ⌀0.3mm turbine blade cooling holes
| Technology | Accuracy | Ra μm | Recast | Advantage |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sinker EDM | ±0.005–0.025 | 0.4–6.3 | 5–25μm | pockets, complex shapes |
| Wire EDM | ±0.002–0.008 | 0.1–1.6 | 1–5μm | profiles, Carbide |
| ECM | ±0.01–0.05 | 0.05–0.5 | 0! | no Recast, no residual stress |
| Fast Hole | ±0.05–0.1 | 3.2–12.5 | 25–50μm | deep cooling holes |
🎯 Jigs, Fixtures & Workholding
3-2-1 Principle: 3 points (plane) + 2 points (line) + 1 point = locks 6 DOF. Locate first — clamp after!
3-2-1 Principle — Locating Principle
3 DOF2 DOF1 DOF
Primary Plane3 points — locks Z, Rx, Ry
Secondary Plane2 points — locks Y, Rz
Tertiary Plane1 point — locks X
Locating ToolsFlat Pads, V-Blocks, Conical Pins, Rest Buttons
Clamping ToolsToggle, Strap, Screw, Pneumatic
► Locate first, clamp after!
► Clamping force opposite cutting force
► Don\'t block tool access
✓ the basic principle for every machining fixture
▶ YouTube► Clamping force opposite cutting force
► Don\'t block tool access
✓ the basic principle for every machining fixture
Locating Pins
DiamondRound
Round Pinlocates X and Y
Diamond Pinlocates direction only — prevents Over-Constraint
MaterialHRC 58-62, HV 700+
Accuracy±0.003mm
Diamond Pin + Round Pin = precise location without Over-Constraint
✓ Round+Diamond combo = the classic solution
✗ Over-Constraint = binding part, distortion
▶ YouTube✓ Round+Diamond combo = the classic solution
✗ Over-Constraint = binding part, distortion
Machining Fixture
CNCToggle Clamp
Fixture MaterialA36 / 4140 / Al 6061 (light)
Reference RaRa ≤0.8μm for locating surfaces
Repeatability±0.01–0.05mm
ToggleDE-STA-CO, Carr Lane
✓ repeatability between parts ← ↓cost
✓ prevents human error
✗ part-specific — development cost
▶ YouTube✓ prevents human error
✗ part-specific — development cost
Drill Jig
Drill BushTool Guide
Drill BushHRC 60+, ⌀±0.008mm
TypesPlate Jig / Box Jig / Angle Jig / Leaf Jig
Advantageno Layout needed ← full repeatability
✓ full repeatability without measurement
✓ no skilled operator required
✗ part/design specific
▶ YouTube✓ no skilled operator required
✗ part/design specific
Hydraulic Fixture
FastConsistentSchunk
Clamp Time1–3 seconds
Force500–50,000N consistent
Pressure50–200 bar
ManufacturersSchunk, Jergens, AMF, Vischer+Bolli
✓ mass production — fast Setup
✓ consistent force (not operator-dependent)
✗ complex, expensive, maintenance
▶ YouTube✓ consistent force (not operator-dependent)
✗ complex, expensive, maintenance
Pneumatic Fixture
Air4-8 bar
Pressure4–8 bar air
Time0.5–2 seconds
Forceup to 10,000N
Advantageclean, cheap, fast
✓ clean — for clean rooms
✓ cheaper than hydraulic
✗ lower force than hydraulic
▶ YouTube✓ cheaper than hydraulic
✗ lower force than hydraulic
Electropermanent Magnetic Fixture
5 SidesEPSchunk/Tecnomagnete
TypesPermanent / Electro / Electropermanent (EP)
Force2–8 kgf/cm²
EP Safetyholds magnetization during power loss!
Materialsmagnetic steel only!
✓ access to 5 sides in one setup
✓ EP = safe during power loss (Permanent)
✗ not for SS, Al, Ti, Cu!
▶ YouTube✓ EP = safe during power loss (Permanent)
✗ not for SS, Al, Ti, Cu!
Vacuum Fixture
Thin SheetFragile Parts
Vacuum0.8–0.95 bar
Materialssheet, plastic, CFRP, ceramic
UsePCB, thin plates, leaves
✓ for fragile, flat parts
✓ for PCB, CFRP, thin Al
✗ requires most of the contact area covered
▶ YouTube✓ for PCB, CFRP, thin Al
✗ requires most of the contact area covered
Modular Fixture
BlucoSchunkFlexible
SystemsBluco, Schunk Grid, Renishaw CMM, Item
ComponentsT-Slot Plates, Blocks, Pins, Clamps
Advantagereusable components for different parts
Accuracy±0.02–0.1mm (lower than dedicated fixture)
✓ flexible — tooling cost savings
✓ prototypes, small batches
✗ less accurate than dedicated fixture
▶ YouTube✓ prototypes, small batches
✗ less accurate than dedicated fixture
Zero-Point System — Erowa / System 3R
ErowaSystem 3R±0.002mm
Repeatability±0.001–0.003mm!
Setup Time<30 seconds!
UtilizationEDM ↔ CMM ↔ CNC — one Datum
ManufacturersErowa, System 3R (Sandvik), Hirschmann, 3JS
✓ 80%+ Setup time savings
✓ EDM ↔ Grind ↔ CMM — same Datum
✓ ↑machine utilization (Setup happens outside while machine runs)
✗ expensive initial setup
▶ YouTube✓ EDM ↔ Grind ↔ CMM — same Datum
✓ ↑machine utilization (Setup happens outside while machine runs)
✗ expensive initial setup
Pallet System
HMCMulti-Part
UseHMC Pallet Changer, FMS, Robotic Loading
Accuracy±0.002–0.008mm
Repeatabilityexcellent — ← Zero-Point
✓ ↑machine time — loading happens outside
✓ FMS: multiple machines, many pallets
▶ YouTube✓ FMS: multiple machines, many pallets
Welding Fixture
Distortion PreventionRepeatability
MaterialA36/SS304 · heat treated
MethodBack-step tacking, Symmetric welding
ToolsCleco, Toggle, Magnetic Hold
Useframes, bodies, structures
✓ fixturing before welding = ↓distortion
✗ residual stresses still remain
▶ YouTube✗ residual stresses still remain
CMM Fixture
CMMUnified Datum
MaterialAl / Carbon Fiber — ↓thermal distortion
Purposefixed Datum + repeatability
Zero-Pointdirect transfer from EDM/CNC
✓ same Datum as the production fixture
✓ Zero-Point = instant transfer
✗ recalibration required after changes
▶ YouTube✓ Zero-Point = instant transfer
✗ recalibration required after changes
| Fixture Type | Setup Time | Accuracy | Force | Advantage |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3-2-1 Manual | 5-30 minutes | ±0.01-0.05 | manual | flexible |
| Hydraulic | 1-3 seconds | ±0.01-0.03 | 500-50,000N | mass production |
| EP Magnetic | <10 seconds | ±0.02-0.1 | 2-8 kgf/cm2 | 5 sides |
| Modular | 10-60 minutes | ±0.02-0.1 | manual | flexible, savings |
| Zero-Point | <30 seconds | ±0.001-0.003 repeat | <0.001mm | Ra 0.025-0.1μm |
🖨Additive Manufacturing (AM)
ISO/ASTM 52900 defines 7 AM process families. Layer-by-layer from CAD data — no cutting tools.
FDM — Fused Deposition Modeling
Most CommonCheapPLA/ABS/PEEK
XY Accuracy±0.1-0.5mm
Ra12-50 μm
Layer Thickness0.05-0.4mm
Z Strength40-70% of XY (anisotropic!)
MaterialsPLA · ABS · PETG · TPU · Nylon · PEEK · Ultem
✓ the cheapest and fastest for prototyping
✓ Ultem 9085 = FAA V0 Flame approved
✗ anisotropic! weak in Z
✗ coarse finish — Layer Lines visible
▶ YouTube✓ Ultem 9085 = FAA V0 Flame approved
✗ anisotropic! weak in Z
✗ coarse finish — Layer Lines visible
FDM Materials — Mechanical Data
PLA-PEEKCF-Nylon
PLARM=50-65 MPa · Tmax=60°C · prototyping
ABSRM=40-50 MPa · Tmax=85°C · jigs
PETGRM=50-55 MPa · Tmax=75°C · mechanical
PEEKRM=80-100 MPa · Tmax=260°C · aerospace
Ultem 9085RM=71 MPa · Tmax=170°C · FAA V0
CF-NylonRM=85-120 MPa · E=6-12 GPa · Markforged
Continuous Fiber (Markforged): CF/Kevlar/Fiberglass = RM up to 800 MPa!
✓ CF-Nylon = stronger than Al 6061
▶ YouTube✓ CF-Nylon = stronger than Al 6061
SLA — Stereolithography
High AccuracyExcellent Finish
Accuracy±0.05-0.15mm
Ra1.6-6.3 μm
Layer Thickness0.025-0.1mm
ProcessUV Laser 355nm ← Galvo Mirrors ← Resin Vat
PostUV Curing Station mandatory!
✓ the best finish in plastic
✓ jigs, medical, dental
✗ brittle resin · UV degradation
▶ YouTube✓ jigs, medical, dental
✗ brittle resin · UV degradation
DLP + MSLA — Digital Light Processing
Faster than SLAWhole Layer
DLPUV projector = whole layer at once
MSLALCD Masked — cheapest (Elegoo, Anycubic)
Accuracy±0.05-0.1mm
DentalCrown, Bridge, Surgical Guide ±0.05mm
✓ fast = part count doesn\'t affect time
✓ Dental DLP = ±0.05mm
✗ large sizes = ↓accuracy
▶ YouTube✓ Dental DLP = ±0.05mm
✗ large sizes = ↓accuracy
Resins — SLA/DLP Materials
DentalHigh-Temp
StandardRM=50-65 MPa · brittle · visual prototyping
Tough (ABS-like)RM=55-70 MPa · jigs
Flexible 50Avery flexible · seals
High-TempTmax=238°C! · casting tooling
Castable Waxburns out cleanly · Lost-Wax Casting
✓ High-Temp Resin: Tmax=238°C!
▶ YouTubeSLS — Selective Laser Sintering
No Supports!PA12Nesting
Accuracy±0.2-0.3mm
Ra6-15 μm
MaterialsPA12 · PA11 · TPU · PA12-GF · Alumide
Advantageparts float in powder = no supports!
Refresh50% new + 50% recycled
✓ most complex parts without supports
✓ hinges, living hinges, interlocking parts
✗ coarse finish · gray color
▶ YouTube✓ hinges, living hinges, interlocking parts
✗ coarse finish · gray color
MJF — HP Multi Jet Fusion
10x FasterHPGood Finish
Accuracy±0.2-0.3mm
Ra6-12 μm — better than SLS!
Speed10x faster than SLS!
MaterialsPA12 · PA11 · TPA (flexible) · Full Color
✓ fast + good finish + Full Color CMYK
✗ HP printers only — expensive
▶ YouTube✗ HP printers only — expensive
SLS/MJF — Materials
PA12TPU
PA12RM=48 MPa · E=1.6 GPa · A=18% · Tmax=150°C
PA11 BioRM=52 MPa · A=40% · ▲flexibility
PA12-GFRM=51 MPa · E=3.3 GPa · ▲stiffness
TPU SLSRM=12 MPa · A=350%! · flexible
AlumideRM=48 MPa · E=3.8 GPa · Al+PA
✓ PA12 = functional production parts!
▶ YouTubeDMLS/SLM — Metal Laser Powder Bed
Metal!Aerospace±0.05mm
XY Accuracy±0.05-0.15mm
Ra6-25 μm (coarse! grinding required)
Layer Thickness0.02-0.08mm
EnvironmentArgon/Nitrogen Inert Atmosphere
Residual Stresshigh! Stress Relief mandatory
ManufacturersEOS (DMLS) · SLM Solutions · Renishaw
✓ Topology Optimized parts = ↓40-70% weight
✓ Conformal Cooling, Lattice Structure
✗ supports mandatory + hard to remove
✗ Recast Layer 5-25μm — critical!
▶ YouTube✓ Conformal Cooling, Lattice Structure
✗ supports mandatory + hard to remove
✗ Recast Layer 5-25μm — critical!
DMLS/SLM Materials
Ti/SS/INAl
Ti-6Al-4VRM=1000-1100 MPa · Rp0=900-1000
SS 316LRM=540-640 MPa · A=30-50%
17-4PH H900RM=1000-1300 MPa · HRC=33
Inconel 625RM=830-980 MPa · Tmax=900°C
Inconel 718RM=1200-1380 MPa · Tmax=650°C
AlSi10MgRM=390-430 MPa · ρ=2.67
✓ Ti-6Al-4V = AMS 7003. IN625 = ASTM F3055
▶ YouTubeEBM — Electron Beam Melting
VacuumNo StressArcam/GE
Principle60kV electron beam in 10⁻⁴ Torr vacuum
Accuracy±0.2-0.5mm (coarser than SLM)
Ra25-50 μm (very coarse)
Residual Stressnearly zero! — no Stress Relief
MaterialsTi-6Al-4V · Ti ELI · CoCrMo · TiAl
✓ no residual stress = no Stress Relief
✓ Ti ELI medical implants — ASTM F3001
✗ coarse finish. huge, expensive equipment (Arcam/GE)
▶ YouTube✓ Ti ELI medical implants — ASTM F3001
✗ coarse finish. huge, expensive equipment (Arcam/GE)
⚠ DMLS Process Chain — After Printing
🖨
PrintingDMLS/SLM
🔥
Stress Relief650°C/2h (Ti)
✂
Support RemovalWire EDM
💎
HIP (optional)✓ 99.9% density
🔧
Machiningcritical interfaces
🔍
NDTCT Scan/FPI
DED — Directed Energy Deposition
RepairLarge Parts
Principlelaser + fed powder = layer welding
Accuracy±0.3-1.0mm
Ra20-100 μm
Rate0.1-10 kg/h
MaterialsTi, Inconel, SS, Al, Cladding
✓ turbine blade repair
✓ Gradient Materials (composition changes along length)
✗ coarse finish — machining mandatory
▶ YouTube✓ Gradient Materials (composition changes along length)
✗ coarse finish — machining mandatory
WAAM — Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing
Cheap!MIG RobotLarge
PrincipleMIG/TIG + 6-axis robot = printing
Rate1-10 kg/h — the fastest!
Material Costwelding wire = 10-100x cheaper than DMLS powder
Accuracy±1-3mm
Materialssteel, SS, Ti, Al, Inconel, Cu
✓ huge Ti parts = ↓70% cost vs EBM
✓ Near-Net Shape = additional machining
✗ very coarse finish
▶ YouTube✓ Near-Net Shape = additional machining
✗ very coarse finish
Binder Jetting
FastNo Supports15-22% Shrinkage
PrincipleInkjet ← Fusing Agent ← Detailing Agent ← IR
Accuracy±0.2-0.5mm (after sintering shrinkage)
Shrinkage15-22% during sintering — must be designed for!
MaterialsSS 316L · 17-4PH · WC · Ceramics
ManufacturersDesktop Metal · ExOne · HP Metal Jet
✓ no supports. Fast. Medium volumes
✗ sintering shrinkage = must compensate in design!
▶ YouTube✗ sintering shrinkage = must compensate in design!
PolyJet / MJP — Multi-Material Jetting
14 Materials!±0.1mmStratasys
PrincipleInkjet spraying Resin + UV = layers
Accuracy±0.1mm — highest in plastic!
Ra0.8-3.2 μm
SupportWax — melts in warm water
Materialsup to 14 materials simultaneously!
ManufacturersStratasys J55/J850 · 3D Systems
✓ flexible+rigid+transparent — one part!
✓ medical jigs, product prototyping
✗ very expensive. UV degradation
▶ YouTube✓ medical jigs, product prototyping
✗ very expensive. UV degradation
Continuous Fiber Reinforced — Markforged
RM 800 MPa!CF/Kevlar
PrincipleFDM + continuous fiber = Nylon Matrix
RMup to 800 MPa (CF)! stronger than Al 6061
E (CF)up to 60 GPa!
FibersCF · Kevlar · Fiberglass · HSHT Glass
Usejigs, CMM fixtures, surgical tools
✓ RM > Al 6061!
✗ very anisotropic. min. fiber radius 4mm
▶ YouTube✗ very anisotropic. min. fiber radius 4mm
📐 DfAM — Design for Additive Manufacturing
| Parameter | FDM | SLA/DLP | DMLS/SLM |
|---|---|---|---|
| Max. Overhang | 45° | 45° | 45° |
| Min. Wall Thickness | 1.2mm | 0.5mm | 0.4mm |
| Min. Hole (vertical) | ⌀2.0mm | ⌀0.5mm | ⌀0.5mm |
| Min. Clearance | 0.3mm | 0.15mm | 0.15mm |
| Min. Text Height | 5mm | 1mm | 1mm |
🎯 Core DfAM Principles
Topology Optimization: ↑30-70% ↓weight — Altair, nTopology, Fusion 360
Lattice Structure: internal lattice structure = ↑strength/weight
Conformal Cooling: cooling channels following contour = ↓20-40% cycle time
Part Consolidation: several parts = one part
Escape Holes: for SLS/MJF — internal powder removal
Helicoil: internal threads = Helicoil preferred in AM
Lattice Structure: internal lattice structure = ↑strength/weight
Conformal Cooling: cooling channels following contour = ↓20-40% cycle time
Part Consolidation: several parts = one part
Escape Holes: for SLS/MJF — internal powder removal
Helicoil: internal threads = Helicoil preferred in AM
Stress Relief + HIP
DMLS Mandatory99.9%
Stress Relief Ti64650°C/2h Ar → AC
Stress Relief SS316L650°C/1h → FC
HIP Ti64920°C/100MPa Ar/2h → ✓ 99.9% density
HIP Inconel 7181163°C/200MPa/4h
Solution+Aging IN718980°C/1h AC + 720°C/8h
✓ HIP = mandatory for aerospace/defense
✓ ↓porosity = ↑fatigue resistance
▶ YouTube✓ ↓porosity = ↑fatigue resistance
AM Surface Finish
Bead BlastElectropolish
Bead BlastingGlass/Al2O3 · Ra ↓50% · ↑hardness
Tumble PolishingMedia+Compound · Ra 0.4-1.6μm
ElectropolishingSS/Ti · Ra ↓70% + Passivation
CNC Finishcritical interfaces Ra ≤1.6μm
Anodize AM-AlAl AM — anodizes normally
✓ Electropolishing = SS AM ← GMP
▶ YouTubeNDT — AM Inspection
CT ScanFPI/UT
CT Scanporosity + internal geometry check
FPI / PTsurface cracks — ASTM E1417
UT Ultrasonicinternal defects ≥0.5mm
Density CheckArchimedes — target: >99.5%
Tensile TestDog-bone from same Batch — AMS 7003
✓ CT Scan = the best inspection for AM
✗ expensive. not for every part
▶ YouTube✗ expensive. not for every part
📋 AM Standards and Approvals
| Standard | Subject | Material |
|---|---|---|
| AMS 7003 | DMLS Ti-6Al-4V aerospace | Ti |
| AMS 7004 | SLM Ti-6Al-4V aerospace | Ti |
| AMS 7009 | AlSi10Mg AM | Al |
| AMS 7032 | Inconel 625 DMLS | IN625 |
| ASTM F3001 | Ti-6Al-4V ELI medical SLM | Ti ELI |
| ASTM F3055 | Inconel 625 AM | IN625 |
| ASTM F3056 | Inconel 718 AM | IN718 |
| ISO/ASTM 52900 | international AM terminology | all |
| NASA-STD-6030 | AM space/NASA | all |
| FDA 2017 | medical AM guidance | all |
🔫Plastic Injection Molding
Injection Molding — molten plastic pressed into a mold. The breakthrough of the plastics industry. Billions of parts a day worldwide. Dominates 32% of plastic volume.
Standard Injection Molding — Standard IM
Most Common1-120 secMillions of Parts
Principleheated pellets + injection pressure = mold + cooling = part
Injection Pressure500-2000 bar
Barrel Temp.150-320°C (per material)
Cycle Time5-120 seconds
Accuracy±0.05-0.2mm
Ra0.4-3.2 μm (from the mold!)
Cycle stages: Clamp → Inject → Pack/Hold → Cool → Eject
✓ huge volumes. finish straight from mold. ↓unit cost
✓ high geometric complexity
✗ tooling expensive ($5K-$200K). not for small volumes
✗ Warping in PP/PA — uniform cooling critical!
▶ YouTube✓ huge volumes. finish straight from mold. ↓unit cost
✓ high geometric complexity
✗ tooling expensive ($5K-$200K). not for small volumes
✗ Warping in PP/PA — uniform cooling critical!
Injection Molding Machine
Clamp ForceShot SizeToggle/Hydraulic
Clamp Force50-5000 Ton (depends on part area)
Shot Size1-50,000 cc
Togglemechanical — fast. ↑accuracy. ↓energy
Hydraulichydraulic — high force. ↓accuracy slightly
All-Electric↓↓ energy. ↑↑ accuracy. ↑ cost
ManufacturersArburg, Engel, Husky, Nissei, Haitian
Clamping Force Calc: F = A(cm²) × P(bar) / 100 [Ton]
✓ All-Electric = the highest accuracy. ↓70% energy
✓ Hydraulic = high force for large molds
▶ YouTube✓ All-Electric = the highest accuracy. ↓70% energy
✓ Hydraulic = high force for large molds
Process Parameters
CriticalDOE
Melt Temp150-320°C — per material ±5°C
Mold Temp20-140°C — ↑ Temp = ↓ Ra + ↓ Warping
Injection Speed20-200 mm/s — ↑ Speed = ↓ Weld Lines
Packing Pressure50-80% of injection pressure
Cooling Timecalculation: t = (s²/π²a) × ln(∆T)
Back Pressure5-20 bar — ↑ Melt uniformity
✓ DOE (Design of Experiments) for optimization
► Moldflow Simulation before production!
▶ YouTube► Moldflow Simulation before production!
Gas-Assisted IM
Hollow↓ Weight↓ Warping
PrincipleN₂ injected after material → hollows the center
Advantage↓20-40% weight! ↓ Sink Marks. ↓ Warping
Accuracy±0.1-0.3mm
Usehandles, frames, engine housings, furniture
Gas Pressure100-300 bar N₂
✓ ↓ Sink Marks on thick parts
✓ ↓ Warping on long parts
✗ complex programming. ↑ equipment cost
▶ YouTube✓ ↓ Warping on long parts
✗ complex programming. ↑ equipment cost
Two-Shot / Multi-Component IM
2 MaterialsOvermoldOne Cycle
PrincipleInjection 1 (rigid) → rotate → Injection 2 (soft/color)
Usecomfort grips, seals, buttons, medical equipment
MaterialsABS+TPE · PC+TPU · PP+SEBS · Rigid+Soft
Accuracy±0.05-0.1mm
ManufacturersArburg Allrounder, Engel combimelt
Overmolding vs Two-Shot: Overmold=2 separate processes. Two-Shot=one mold
✓ finished part straight from the machine — ↓ assembly cost
▶ YouTube✓ finished part straight from the machine — ↓ assembly cost
Insert Molding
Metal+PlasticStrength
Principlemetal insert (screws/pins) → mold → molded around
Insert TypesThreaded Brass / Stainless / Knurled Pins
Useelectronic connectors, motor housings, medical
Advantagemaximum thread strength in plastic!
✓ pull-out strength 5x higher than Heat Insert!
✓ assembly savings
✗ stabilizing insert in the mold — setup time
▶ YouTube✓ assembly savings
✗ stabilizing insert in the mold — setup time
LSR — Liquid Silicone Rubber IM
SiliconeBiocompatibleTmax 200°C
Principle2 liquid components (A+B) → mixing → cure in heated mold
Tmax200°C! heat resistant
Ra0.05-0.8 μm — excellent finish
Usebaby products, medical, earbuds, seals
StandardISO 10993 (biocompatible)
✓ FDA / ISO 10993 biocompatible
✓ Tmax=200°C + flexible
✗ Flash control critical!
✗ unique equipment (Cold Runner extra)
▶ YouTube✓ Tmax=200°C + flexible
✗ Flash control critical!
✗ unique equipment (Cold Runner extra)
Micro Injection Molding
<1g±0.002mm
Shot Weight0.001-1 gram
Accuracy±0.002-0.01mm
Usemedical (needles, implants), electronics, MEMS
ManufacturersBattenfeld Microsystem, Arburg
✓ tiny parts at maximum accuracy
✗ cleaning, storage, handling — very challenging
▶ YouTube✗ cleaning, storage, handling — very challenging
Structural Foam IM
↓ DensityRigid
PrincipleChemical Foaming Agent → foam inside solid Skin
↓ Weight↓10-40%
Racoarse — finishing needed
Uselarge automotive parts, industrial equipment, panels
✓ ↓ weight + ↑ rigidity
✗ coarse Ra — additional finishing
✗ not for cosmetic parts
▶ YouTube✗ coarse Ra — additional finishing
✗ not for cosmetic parts
Two-Plate Mold
SimplestMost CommonCore+Cavity
StructureCavity Plate + Core Plate + Runner System
GateDirect Sprue / Side Gate / Pin Gate
EjectionEjector Pins / Blades / Stripper Plate
Mold MaterialP20 (1.2311) / H13 (1.2344) / S136 (SS)
HardnessP20: HRC 30-35 | H13: HRC 44-52
Gate Location critical — ↑ Weld Lines + ↓ Sink.
✓ simple, cheap, fast to manufacture
✓ for most simple parts
✗ Runner = scrap (unless Hot Runner)
▶ YouTube✓ simple, cheap, fast to manufacture
✓ for most simple parts
✗ Runner = scrap (unless Hot Runner)
Three-Plate Mold
Auto Gate RemovalPin Gate
StructureRunner Plate + Cavity Plate + Core Plate
AdvantageRunner separates automatically — ↓ separation cost
GatePin Gate — small and cosmetic
Usesmall parts, Multi-Cavity, high volumes
✓ Gate in the center of the part — ↓ Warping
✓ Auto-separation of Runner
✗ more complex. ↑ mold cost
▶ YouTube✓ Auto-separation of Runner
✗ more complex. ↑ mold cost
Family Mold
Several Parts↓ Cost
Principleseveral different parts in the same mold
Advantage↓↓ mold cost. all parts in one cycle
DisadvantageFill Balance hard — different parts = different fill time
Usekit of parts, prototyping, low production
✓ ↓↓ cost for prototyping
✗ different Weld Lines. Fill Balance issue
▶ YouTube✗ different Weld Lines. Fill Balance issue
Multi-Cavity Mold
4/8/16/32/64 CavitiesMass Production
Cavities4 / 8 / 16 / 32 / 64 / 128 cavities
BalanceNaturally Balanced Runner = H-Tree Pattern
Hot Runneressential with many cavities!
Usemillions of units — caps, cups, small parts
Runner Balance: ± 2% between cavities — critical for quality!
✓ ↓↓↓ per-unit cost
✗ ↑↑ mold cost. high maintenance
▶ YouTube✓ ↓↓↓ per-unit cost
✗ ↑↑ mold cost. high maintenance
Sliders & Lifters
UndercutsComplex Parts
Sliderhorizontal motion — for slots, side holes
Lifterangled motion — for internal bumps
Angle Pinmoves Slider through the Ejection Stroke
Hydraulic Sliderfor large motions — external equipment
Undercut = any feature that prevents direct part release
✓ enables complex parts
✗ ↑ mold cost. ↑ maintenance. ↑ cycle time
▶ YouTube✓ enables complex parts
✗ ↑ mold cost. ↑ maintenance. ↑ cycle time
Stack Mold
×2 OutputClamp Force =
Principle2 levels of Cavity on the same Clamp
Output×2 parts without ×2 machine!
Usehuge volumes: caps, packaging, plates
ManufacturersMold-Masters, DME Stack Mold
✓ ×2 Output + same Clamp Force + same machine!
✗ very complex. ↑↑ mold cost
▶ YouTube✗ very complex. ↑↑ mold cost
Cold Runner
SimpleScrapCheap
PrincipleRunner solidifies with the part → separated → ground up
TypesSprue / Runner / Gate
Gate TypesSprue · Edge · Fan · Tab · Submarine · Pin
Materialscrap! can be ground → Regrind (20-30%)
Usesmall-medium volumes. prototyping
✓ cheap tooling. easy to modify
✗ Runner scrap = ↑ material cost
✗ ↑ Cycle Time (waiting for Runner to cool)
▶ YouTube✗ Runner scrap = ↑ material cost
✗ ↑ Cycle Time (waiting for Runner to cool)
Hot Runner
No Scrap!Valve Gate↓ Cycle
Principleheated Manifold — Runner always liquid. no scrap
TypesOpen Gate (Thermal) / Valve Gate (more precise)
Temp.210-350°C controlled at every point
ManufacturersMold-Masters, Husky, Synventive, Hasco
ROIpays for itself at 2-3 million units!
Valve Gate = precise Shut-off → ↓ Gate Vestige
✓ ↓ material cost (no Runner scrap)
✓ ↓ Cycle Time + ↑ quality
✗ ↑↑ mold cost ($15K-$80K more)
✗ complex maintenance. Color Change difficult
▶ YouTube✓ ↓ material cost (no Runner scrap)
✓ ↓ Cycle Time + ↑ quality
✗ ↑↑ mold cost ($15K-$80K more)
✗ complex maintenance. Color Change difficult
Insulated Runner
CompromisePrototyping
Principlelarge Runner → skin solidifies → liquid center
Advantagecheaper than Hot Runner
DisadvantageColor Change hard. startup issues
✓ a compromise between Cold and Hot Runner
✗ inconsistent — not for mass production
▶ YouTube✗ inconsistent — not for mass production
🧿 Injection Materials — Engineering Thermoplastics
| Material | Barrel T | Mold T | Shrink% | MFI | Use |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PP (Polypropylene) | 200-280°C | 20-60°C | 1.0-2.5 | 5-50 | packaging, automotive, furniture, piping |
| ABS | 220-260°C | 40-80°C | 0.4-0.7 | 5-30 | electronics, automotive, toys |
| PA6 (Nylon 6) | 230-280°C | 60-100°C | 0.5-2.2 | 5-20 | gears, connectors, sports |
| PA66 (Nylon 66) | 260-300°C | 60-100°C | 0.5-1.5 | 5-15 | aerospace, automotive, bearings |
| PC (Polycarbonate) | 270-320°C | 70-120°C | 0.5-0.7 | 5-25 | windows, helmets, DVD, medical |
| POM (Acetal) | 185-220°C | 50-90°C | 1.5-3.5 | 5-20 | gears, bearings, self-lube |
| HDPE | 200-280°C | 30-70°C | 1.5-4.0 | 0.1-20 | containers, piping, bags |
| PET | 260-280°C | 10-30°C | 0.2-0.8 | — | bottles, preforms |
| TPE/TPU | 180-230°C | 20-60°C | 1.0-2.5 | — | seals, soft grips, flexible handles |
| PEI (Ultem) | 340-420°C | 140-180°C | 0.5-0.7 | — | aerospace, defense, medical |
| LCP | 300-380°C | 100-180°C | 0.0-0.1 | — | SMT connectors, precision components |
| PEEK | 360-400°C | 150-180°C | 0.5-1.1 | — | aerospace, biomedical, high heat |
⚠ Shrinkage: mold dimension = part dimension / (1 - Shrink%/100)
Filled Materials: GF (Glass Fiber) = ↓ Shrink + ↑ Strength. CF = ↑↑ Stiffness
MFI (Melt Flow Index): ↑ MFI = ↓ Viscosity = ↓ Fill Pressure (thin parts = high MFI)
Filled Materials: GF (Glass Fiber) = ↓ Shrink + ↑ Strength. CF = ↑↑ Stiffness
MFI (Melt Flow Index): ↑ MFI = ↓ Viscosity = ↓ Fill Pressure (thin parts = high MFI)
Warping
#1 CommonCooling
Causeuneven cooling → residual stress
PP/PAhighest tendency — crystalline!
Cooling FixConformal Cooling → ↓50% Warping
Design FixRibs + ↓ Wall Thickness + Gate Location
Moldflowmandatory! detect before production
Anisotropic Shrinkage: GF materials = different Shrink along/across!
✓ Moldflow Simulation = ↓↓ Warping before mold
✓ Conformal Cooling = the strongest weapon
▶ YouTube✓ Moldflow Simulation = ↓↓ Warping before mold
✓ Conformal Cooling = the strongest weapon
Sink Marks
Wall ThicknessPacking
Causeuneven wall thickness → ↓ Packing
RuleT_rib ≤ 0.6 × T_wall
Solution↑ Packing Pressure/Time + ↓ Wall T + Gas Assist
Locationbehind Ribs + Bosses
✗ Sink = design issue! not just Process
✓ T_rib = 0.5-0.6 × T_wall = the golden rule
▶ YouTube✓ T_rib = 0.5-0.6 × T_wall = the golden rule
Flash
Clamp ForceParting Line
CauseClamp Force < Injection Pressure × Area
Solution↑ Clamp Force / ↓ Injection Speed / mold repair
Parting LineWear → ↑ Gap → Flash
✓ correct Clamp Force calculation = ↓ Flash
✗ Flash on large parts = ↑ Clamp Force!
▶ YouTube✗ Flash on large parts = ↑ Clamp Force!
Weld Lines + Short Shot
FlowGate
Weld Linemeeting of 2 plastic flows → ↓ strength ↓ appearance
Short Shotincomplete fill → Viscosity ↑ / Pressure ↓ / Gate ↓
WL Solution↑ Temp / ↑ Speed / changing Gate
SS Solution↑ Packing / ↑ Melt Temp / ↑ Gate
✓ Moldflow predicts Weld Line locations!
✓ Gate in center = ↓ Weld Lines
▶ YouTube✓ Gate in center = ↓ Weld Lines
Burn Marks + Air Traps
VentingTrapped Air
Causetrapped air → Diesel Effect → local burning
SolutionVent Grooves 0.01-0.03mm / Vacuum Mold / ↓ Speed
Locationflow front ends + blind pockets
+OK+ Vent Grooves on every Parting Line
+OK+ Vacuum Venting = the perfect solution
▶ YouTube+OK+ Vacuum Venting = the perfect solution
📐 DfIM — Design for Injection Molding
📏 Core Design Rules
| Parameter | Golden Rule |
|---|---|
| Uniform Wall Thickness | T ±25% maximum |
| T_rib | 0.5-0.6 × T_wall |
| T_boss (external) | 2 × T_wall |
| Draft Angle | 1-2° (cosmetic) / 0.5° (precision) |
| Draft on Texture | +1° per 0.025mm of texture depth |
| Inner Radius | R ≥ 0.5mm (minimum) |
| R_inner | 0.25-0.5 × T_wall (optimal) |
| Undercut | ↓! Slider = ↑ cost |
| Parting Line | choose at edge + uniform height |
| Gate Location | center / thickest / ↓ Weld Lines |
🔥 Wall Thickness by Material
| Material | T Min. | T Max. | Optimal |
|---|---|---|---|
| PP | 0.8mm | 3.8mm | 1.5-2.5mm |
| ABS | 1.0mm | 4.0mm | 2.0-3.0mm |
| PA6/66 | 0.8mm | 3.0mm | 1.5-2.5mm |
| PC | 1.0mm | 3.8mm | 2.0-3.0mm |
| POM | 0.8mm | 3.0mm | 1.5-2.5mm |
| PEEK | 1.0mm | 4.0mm | 1.5-3.0mm |
| LSR | 0.5mm | 10mm | 1.0-5.0mm |
▲ Knit Line Control: Gate Location → Flow Length → Weld Line Position (Moldflow!)
▲ Boss Design: ⌀ × 2 + Draft + Gussets = Strong Boss
▲ Snap Fit: Strain = 0.67 × y × t / L² ≤ Allowable Strain
▲ Cooling Time: t_cool = s²/π²a × ln(4/π × (T_melt-T_mold)/(T_eject-T_mold))
▲ Boss Design: ⌀ × 2 + Draft + Gussets = Strong Boss
▲ Snap Fit: Strain = 0.67 × y × t / L² ≤ Allowable Strain
▲ Cooling Time: t_cool = s²/π²a × ln(4/π × (T_melt-T_mold)/(T_eject-T_mold))
📊 Injection Molding vs Other Processes
| Process | Min. Quantity | Lead Time | Tool Cost | Unit Cost | Accuracy | Materials |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IM Standard | 5,000+ | 4-12 weeks | $5K-$200K | very low | ±0.05-0.2mm | Thermoplastics |
| 3D FDM/SLS | 1 | days | 0 | high | ±0.1-0.5mm | varied |
| IM Prototype (Al) | 50+ | 2-4 weeks | $1K-$15K | low | ±0.1-0.3mm | most Thermopl. |
| Vacuum Casting | 5-50 | 1-2 weeks | $500-$3K | medium | ±0.1-0.3mm | Polyurethane |
| Blow Molding | 1,000+ | 2-6 weeks | $5K-$50K | low | ±0.5-2mm | HDPE/PP/PET |
| Thermoforming | 500+ | 1-4 weeks | $1K-$20K | low | ±0.5-3mm | Sheet Plastic |
| Compression IM | 500+ | 2-6 weeks | $3K-$50K | low | ±0.1-0.5mm | Thermoset/Rubber |
🕔 Injection Mold Lead Time
| Mold Type | Material | Lead Time | Cost |
|---|---|---|---|
| Prototype (P20 Al) | Al 7075 / P20 | 2-4 weeks | $1K-$15K |
| Production (P20) | P20 HRC 30-35 | 4-8 weeks | $5K-$50K |
| Production (H13) | H13 HRC 44-52 | 6-12 weeks | $15K-$200K |
| High Polish (S136) | S136 SS HRC 50 | 8-16 weeks | $20K-$300K |
| Multi-Cavity 16+ | H13 | 10-20 weeks | $50K-$500K |
🏗 Pressing, Compacting & Coining
Pressing — shaping under pressure without removing material. Coining=maximum accuracy+Ra. PM=Net Shape. HIP=closes porosity.
Coining
Maximum Accuracy±0.005mmRa 0.1μm
Accuracy±0.005–0.025mm — the highest in pressing!
Ra0.1–0.4μm — straight from the tool!
Pressure5–8 × material RM
Springbacknearly 0 — material fills every corner
MaterialsCu, Al, soft steel, precious metals
Usecoins, tokens, precision parts
Fills the entire tool = Ra finish directly, no further machining!
✓ Ra 0.1μm directly from the tool
✓ machining savings
✗ very high pressure — large press
✗ tooling = very expensive
▶ YouTube✓ Ra 0.1μm directly from the tool
✓ machining savings
✗ very high pressure — large press
✗ tooling = very expensive
Coining vs Sizing
SizingCalibration
Sizingpartial pressing to calibrate a specific dimension
Accuracy±0.01–0.05mm
UsePM Parts, Forgings — post-calibration
✓ corrects distortion/Springback after manufacturing
✗ not for every geometry
▶ YouTube✗ not for every geometry
Embossing
Small Thickness ChangeRigidity
Principlepressure from male+female tool → raised/recessed pattern in sheet
Sheet Thickness0.3–3mm
MaterialsAl, soft steel, sheet, copper
Usenameplates, cladding, packaging, digits
Stiffening Ribs: adds rigidity to sheet
✓ cosmetic + structural design simultaneously
✗ not for large thickness change like Coining
▶ YouTube✓ cosmetic + structural design simultaneously
✗ not for large thickness change like Coining
Marking / Stamping
NumbersLogo
MethodsPunch Marking / Roll Marking / Dot Peen
Dot Peenfast-moving pin head → DataMatrix code
Useserial numbers, barcodes, logos
✓ Dot Peen = full traceability
✓ ↑local hardness at the mark
▶ YouTube✓ ↑local hardness at the mark
Swaging
TubesCablesRotary
Principlepressing a block/tube around it → reduces diameter
TypesRotary Swaging · Radial · Axial
MaterialsCu, Al, SS, steel, Ti
Usecable connections, tube ends, stepped shafts
Rotary Swaging: rotating hammers — continuous reduction
✓ ↑mechanical properties (Cold Work)
✓ cable connections with Al/steel tips
✗ limited to tubes and cylindrical parts
▶ YouTube✓ ↑mechanical properties (Cold Work)
✓ cable connections with Al/steel tips
✗ limited to tubes and cylindrical parts
Crimping
ElectricalHydraulicMIL
Principlelocal compression of sleeve onto conductor/tube
Useelectrical terminals, hydraulic tubing, gas
StandardsIPC/WHMA-A-620 · MIL-C-21097 (defense)
Pull Testmandatory! strength test after Crimping
Pull Test: MIL-DTL-22520 — force until separation
✓ more reliable than soldering under vibration
✓ defense/aerospace = Crimping only!
▶ YouTube✓ more reliable than soldering under vibration
✓ defense/aerospace = Crimping only!
Swaging
TubesCablesRotary
Principlepressing a block/tube around it → reduces diameter
TypesRotary Swaging · Radial · Axial
MaterialsCu, Al, SS, steel, Ti
Usecable connections, tube ends, stepped shafts
Rotary Swaging: rotating hammers — continuous reduction
✓ ↑mechanical properties (Cold Work)
✓ cable connections with Al/steel tips
✗ limited to tubes and cylindrical parts
▶ YouTube✓ ↑mechanical properties (Cold Work)
✓ cable connections with Al/steel tips
✗ limited to tubes and cylindrical parts
Crimping
ElectricalHydraulicMIL
Principlelocal compression of sleeve onto conductor/tube
Useelectrical terminals, hydraulic tubing, gas
StandardsIPC/WHMA-A-620 · MIL-C-21097 (defense)
Pull Testmandatory! strength test after Crimping
Pull Test: MIL-DTL-22520 — force until separation
✓ more reliable than soldering under vibration
✓ defense/aerospace = Crimping only!
▶ YouTube✓ more reliable than soldering under vibration
✓ defense/aerospace = Crimping only!
Powder Metallurgy
PMNet ShapeWC/Fe
Processpowder → compaction (400–800 MPa) → sinter
Accuracy±0.05–0.1mm (Net Shape!)
Ra0.8–3.2μm
Materialsiron, Cu, SS, W, Ti, WC-Co (Carbide)
Density85–99% (depends on process)
Sinter70–80% T_melt. N₂/H₂ atmosphere
Uses: PM gears, self-lubricated bearings, carbide tools
✓ Net Shape — ↓machining
✓ materials that can\'t be cast (W, Mo, WC)
✗ porosity — weaker than wrought
✗ compaction tooling expensive
▶ YouTube✓ Net Shape — ↓machining
✓ materials that can\'t be cast (W, Mo, WC)
✗ porosity — weaker than wrought
✗ compaction tooling expensive
MIM — Metal Injection Molding
Small PartsComplex
Processmetal powder + binder → injection → Debind → sinter
Accuracy±0.05–0.3mm (after shrinkage!)
Shrinkage15–20% during sintering
MaterialsSS 316L, 17-4PH, Inconel, Ti
✓ complex parts ≤100g in volume
✓ aerospace, medical, premium equipment
✗ 15-20% shrinkage — critical design factor
▶ YouTube✓ aerospace, medical, premium equipment
✗ 15-20% shrinkage — critical design factor
HIP — Hot Isostatic Pressing
99.9% Density100-200 MPaAM
Conditions900–1200°C + 100–200 MPa inert
Density99.9% — almost no porosity!
MaterialsTi, Inconel, SS, ceramics, PM, metal AM
Typical Ti64920°C / 100MPa / 2h Ar
✓ closes porosity in AM and castings
✓ ↑RM ↑fatigue resistance
✓ ceramics and Cermet
✗ very expensive equipment
✗ long production cycle (hours)
▶ YouTube✓ ↑RM ↑fatigue resistance
✓ ceramics and Cermet
✗ very expensive equipment
✗ long production cycle (hours)
SPS — Spark Plasma Sintering
FastCeramics
Processelectrical pulses + pressure + heat — very fast
Timeminutes (vs hours in HIP)
Useceramics, Cermet, special materials
✓ 10-100x faster than HIP
✓ materials that can\'t withstand prolonged sintering
✗ small sizes only
▶ YouTube✓ materials that can\'t withstand prolonged sintering
✗ small sizes only
Clinching — Bolt-Free Press Joining
No BoltNo WeldingTog-L-Loc
Principlepressing two sheets together — mechanical lock
Thickness0.5–5mm (sum of two sheets)
MaterialsAl, steel, SS — even dissimilar!
Useelectrical equipment, automotive, packaging
ManufacturersEckold, BTM, Tox
✓ can join materials that can\'t be welded
✓ no heat, no additional materials
✗ weaker than rivets
▶ YouTube✓ no heat, no additional materials
✗ weaker than rivets
Press Fit
Interference FitH7/p6
FitH7/p6, H7/s6 — Interference Fit
Forcecalculated per Lame Equations
Methodspress / heating the part / cooling the pin
Lame: σ_hoop = E×δ/(2r) for cylindrical interference
✓ no fasteners needed — mechanical back-fit
✗ not for easy disassembly
▶ YouTube✓ no fasteners needed — mechanical back-fit
✗ not for easy disassembly
| Process | Accuracy | Pressure | Materials | Use |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coining | ±0.005–0.025mm | 5-8×RM | Cu, Al, steel | coins, precision parts |
| Swaging | ±0.05–0.2mm | — | cylindrical tubes | cables, tubes |
| Crimping | ±0.1–0.3mm | 50-200 kN | any metal | electrical connections |
| PM | ±0.05–0.1mm | 400-800 MPa | Fe, WC, Ti | gears, bearings |
| HIP | ±0.3–1mm | 100-200 MPa | any metal/ceramic | closing porosity |
| Clinching | ±0.2–0.5mm | 50-200 kN | sheet, Al | bolt-free joining |
🔨 Metal Fitting & Bench Work
Fitter — filing, marking, drilling, honing, riveting, scraping, assembly. The bridge between machining and final assembly.
Layout and Marking
DykemScriberCenter Punch
Surface PlateGranite Grade A/B. flatness 0.003–0.01mm
ScriberHSS/carbide. tip <15°. with Dykem Blue
Center Punch60° for marking. 90° for starting before drilling
HeightHeight Gauge ±0.02mm / digital ±0.01mm
V-Blockholding cylindrical parts
Dykem Blue on the part → Scriber → visible line
Punch before every drilling!
✓ always mark before drilling
✗ without Punch → the drill wanders
▶ YouTubePunch before every drilling!
✓ always mark before drilling
✗ without Punch → the drill wanders
Digital Height Gauge
±0.001mmDigital
Accuracy±0.001–0.01mm
Usemarking + measurement
Range0–300mm / 0–600mm
✓ measuring and marking in one tool
✓ digital output for SPC
▶ YouTube✓ digital output for SPC
Filing
BastardSmoothDouble Cut
Bastardcoarse — fast removal. 14 teeth/25mm
Second Cutmedium. 22 teeth/25mm
Smoothfine. 40 teeth/25mm
Dead Smoothvery fine. 60+ teeth/25mm
Single Cutfinishing — teeth in one direction
Double Cutremoval — crossed teeth
Cross Filing: ↑→ ↗ ↓ for good flatness
File Card for cleaning teeth during work
✓ full control. cheap
✗ never without a handle!
▶ YouTubeFile Card for cleaning teeth during work
✓ full control. cheap
✗ never without a handle!
Needle Files
CornersSlots
Usenarrow slots, corners, die cavities
Thickness⌀3–5mm
Shapesflat, round, triangular, square, knife
✓ access to narrow corners ← die work
✓ essential for mold work
▶ YouTube✓ essential for mold work
Hand Drilling
Center DrillReamer±0.02mm
Center Drillfirst step mandatory! 60° center before drill
DrillHSS 118° (general) / 135° (SS/hard Al)
Reamerhole finish ±0.01–0.02mm. removal 0.1–0.3mm
Counterborefor recessing bolt head. ⌀=D×2
Countersink82°/90° for hole edge
Center Drill → Drill → Ream = 3 steps for a precise hole
✓ Reamer = H7 hole by hand
✗ reamer requires coolant and slow speed
▶ YouTube✓ Reamer = H7 hole by hand
✗ reamer requires coolant and slow speed
Hand Tapping
Taper/Plug/BottomM3-M30
Taper Tapentry — 6 teeth. for starting a hole
Plug Tapcontinuation — 3 teeth. the most common
Bottom Tapfinish — 1.5 teeth. for blind holes
Quarter Turnforward + eighth back to break chips
LubricantSS=Tap Magic · Al=cutting paste
M6×1.0 → drill 5.0mm. M10×1.5 → drill 8.5mm
✓ 3 steps for a precise blind hole
✗ broken tap — EDM to remove
▶ YouTube✓ 3 steps for a precise blind hole
✗ broken tap — EDM to remove
Deburring
NogaMIL-STDMandatory
Deburring ToolNoga / Burr King — edges and holes
Countersink82°/90°/120°. hole corners
Chamfer45° C0.5/C1.0/C2.0. specify on drawing!
RadiusR0.5–R3.0. ↑fatigue strength
Scotch-Brite7A/7S (3M) for SS finish
MIL-STD-1524: Deburring = a QC step!
✓ burr = reject / safety hazard
✓ Chamfer ↑ assembly ease ↑ safety
✗ Scotch-Brite on SS — always one direction!
▶ YouTube✓ burr = reject / safety hazard
✓ Chamfer ↑ assembly ease ↑ safety
✗ Scotch-Brite on SS — always one direction!
Vibratory Finishing
VolumeAutomatic
MediaCeramic / Plastic / Steel Shot
Compoundliquid / solvent / cleaning
Useautomatic Deburr + Burnish + ↓Ra
ManufacturersRösler, Wheelabrator, Vibra
✓ automatic small-to-large volumes
✓ Ra↓ + Deburr + rounded edges
✗ not for precision parts (dimensional shrinkage)
▶ YouTube✓ Ra↓ + Deburr + rounded edges
✗ not for precision parts (dimensional shrinkage)
Solid Rivet
AerospaceAN3-AN20Bucking Bar
MaterialsAl 2117 (AD) · Al 2024 (DD) · SS · Monel
Diameter⌀3/32 to ⌀3/8 inch
ToolsRivet Gun + Bucking Bar
Driven Head⌀=1.5×D, height=0.5×D
Spacing3D between rivets · 1.5D from edge
✓ aerospace: Solid > Bolt for aerodynamic joints
✓ Bucking Bar = ← forms the rivet
✗ not disassemblable. Drill-Out only
▶ YouTube✓ Bucking Bar = ← forms the rivet
✗ not disassemblable. Drill-Out only
Blind Rivet / Pop Rivet
One-SidedFast
Useone-sided access only
MaterialsAl / SS / Monel / Cu-Ni
Sizes⌀3.2mm / ⌀4.0mm / ⌀4.8mm / ⌀6.4mm
✓ fast, no back access needed
✗ weaker than Solid Rivet
✗ mandrel stem may need trimming
▶ YouTube✗ weaker than Solid Rivet
✗ mandrel stem may need trimming
Torque Assembly
Torque WrenchMIL-STD
Torque Wrench±3-5%. always per spec!
Sequencestar/cross pattern — mandatory! not sequential
Loctite 243M3-M20. removable. anti-vibration
Loctite 263permanent. release with 250°C heat
Nordlocktwo washers. high vibration
Wire LockMIL-STD aerospace
✓ precise torque = consistency + safety
✗ Impact Wrench — not for precision bolts!
▶ YouTube✗ Impact Wrench — not for precision bolts!
Helicoil — Thread Repair
RepairAlKeensert
Userepairing damaged threads, strengthening Al
Drill Diameterlarger than standard M (per Helicoil Chart)
Depth1.5–2×D minimum!
Keensertfor large bolts M8+
Helicoil = stronger than the original nut in Al!
✓ fast repair solution
✗ must be noted on drawing as a change
▶ YouTube✓ fast repair solution
✗ must be noted on drawing as a change
Scraping
±0.001mmBlue Test
ToolFlat / triangular / spoon scraper. HSS/carbide
Blue TestPrussian Blue on a plate → ← contact marking
Target25–40 points per 25×25mm
Usegranite surface plates, V-Ways, machine fixturing
Blue → scraping high spots → recheck
✓ better flatness than Grinding!
✓ ↑oil retention (oil pockets)
✗ very slow. a rare trade
▶ YouTube✓ better flatness than Grinding!
✓ ↑oil retention (oil pockets)
✗ very slow. a rare trade
Ultrasonic Cleaning
40 kHzDeep Clean
Frequency25–75 kHz
Useholes, corners, complex parts
Cavitationmicro-bubbles ← mechanical cleaning
Fluidwater + detergent / IPA
✓ unmatched deep cleaning
✓ White Glove Test: passing a white glove = clean
✗ not for fragile parts (Cavitation)
▶ YouTube✓ White Glove Test: passing a white glove = clean
✗ not for fragile parts (Cavitation)
Passivation SS
SSAMS 2700
ProcessCitric Acid / Nitric Acid + DI Water
Stagescleaning → passivation → rinse → inspection
TestASTM A380 / A967. Copper Sulfate Test
✓ removes free Fe from SS after machining
✓ ↑corrosion resistance
✗ not a coating! chemical cleaning only
▶ YouTube✓ ↑corrosion resistance
✗ not a coating! chemical cleaning only
| Operation | Tool | Removal Rate | Ra After |
|---|---|---|---|
| Filing Bastard | 14/25mm cut | 0.1-0.3mm/stroke | Ra 6.3-12.5μm |
| Filing Smooth | 40/25mm cut | 0.02-0.05mm | Ra 1.6-3.2μm |
| Paper P120 | abrasive paper | 0.01-0.05mm | Ra 1.6-3.2μm |
| Paper P400 | abrasive paper | 0.002-0.01mm | Ra 0.4-0.8μm |
| Paper P1200 | abrasive paper | <0.005mm | Ra 0.1-0.2μm |
| Scraping | Scraper+Blue | <0.002mm/stroke | Ra 0.1-0.4μm + flatness! |
| Buffer Compound | polishing machine | <0.001mm | Ra 0.025-0.1μm |